Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture
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Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in
Cage Culture
Edited by
Patrick T.K. Woo
University of Guelph
Guelph, Canada
David W. Bruno
FRS Marine Laboratory
Aberdeen, UK
and
L.H. Susan Lim
University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
CABI Publishing
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CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International

Bruno, D. W. (David W.) III. Lim, Susan L. H.
SH171 .D53 2002
639.3 dc21 2002001302
ISBN 0 85199 443 1
Typeset by AMA DataSet, UK
Printed and bound in the UK by Biddles Ltd, Guildford and King’s Lynn
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Contents
Contributors vii
Preface ix
PART I – GENERAL
1. Introduction and History of Cage Culture 1
Chua Thia Eng and Elsie Tech
2. Overview of Cage Culture 41
Malcolm C.M. Beveridge
PART II – COLDWATER FISH
3. Infectious Diseases of Coldwater Fish in Marine and Brackish Water 61
Michael L. Kent and Trygve T. Poppe
4. Infectious Diseases of Coldwater Fish in Fresh Water 107
Laural Brown and David W. Bruno
5. Non-infectious Disorders of Coldwater Fish 171
David J. Speare
PART III – WARMWATER FISH
6. Infectious Diseases of Warmwater Fish in Marine and Brackish Waters 193
Leong Tak Seng and Angelo Colorni

Thailand.
A. Colorni, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, National Center for
Mariculture, PO Box 1212, Eilat 88112, Israel.
T.E. Chua, Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia
(PEMSEA), DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines.
J.W. Fournie, US Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Ecology Division, 1 Sabine Island
Drive, Gulf Breeze, Florida 32561, USA.
W.E. Hawkins, Department of Coastal Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Ocean
Springs, Mississippi 39564-7000, USA.
M.L. Kent, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Biological Sciences Branch, Pacific
Biological Station, Nanaimo, British Columbia V9R 5K6, Canada.
T.S. Leong, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.
L.H.S. Lim, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
G.D. Lio-Po, Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center,
Tigbauan, 5021 Iloilo, Philippines.
T.T. Poppe, Department of Morphology, Genetics and Aquatic Biology, The Norwegian
School of Veterinary Science, PO Box 8196 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway.
D.J. Speare, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College,
Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island C1A 4P3, Canada.
E. Tech, Asian Fisheries Society, 25-A Mayaman Street, UP Village, Quezon City,
Philippines.
P.T.K. Woo, Axelrod Institute of Ichthyology and Department of Zoology, College of
Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada.
vii
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and/or solutions to problems associated with the cage culture of finfish.
This book is divided into four parts – the first part is on the cage culture system, the
second and third are on diseases/disorders in warmwater fish (water temperature above
15°C) and in coldwater fish, respectively. In each of these parts, there are three chapters –
one on infectious diseases in fresh water (zero salinity), one on estuarine and marine
diseases and one on non-infectious disorders. The final part on emerging diseases is to alert
the industry to potential problems. We hope this division of the book will make it easier for
the reader to access information on known diseases/disorders within a group of fish. The
arrangement will also help to highlight similarities and differences in disease problems
between groups of fish (e.g. between marine warmwater and marine coldwater fish). How
-
ever, such divisions also create some minor problems, e.g. a few pathogens have been
ix
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isolated from both seawater and freshwater fish, so our authors and editors have worked
closely to avoid extensive overlaps in coverage. For example, furunculosis is in Chapter 4,
with only brief reference to it in Chapter 3, because it is often seen in freshwater fish.
Similarly, important infectious agents (e.g. Piscirickettsia salmonis) of marine fish (Chapter
3) are only briefly mentioned in Chapter 4 because of their lesser importance to freshwater
fish.
There are books on infectious and on non-infectious diseases/disorders of fish (e.g. Fish
Diseases and Disorders, Volumes 1–3, CAB International), but there are none devoted specif-
ically to problems associated with cage culture of finfish. Problems encountered in cage cul-
ture are in some ways different from those using other rearing methods. In cage culture, fish
may be exposed constantly to ubiquitous pathogens. Also, the stress associated with captive
rearing creates opportunities for disease, and to a lesser extent non-infectious disorders, to

DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines;
2
Asian Fisheries Society
25-A Mayaman Street, UP Village, Quezon City, Philippines
History of Cage Culture
Open sea activities, such as cage and pen
culture, are viewed by many stakeholders in
the industry as the aquaculture system of
the millennium. Fish production from cages
and pens (both in freshwater and marine
environments) contributes significantly to
total foodfish produced. Cage culture has
made possible the large-scale production of
commercial finfish and will probably be
the most efficient and economical way of
raising fish.
Aquaculturists realize the need to limit
further conversion of wetlands and man-
groves into traditional aquaculture farms.
We face a situation where even freshwater
ecosystems have reached critical levels
with respect to their carrying capacities.
The depletion of ocean and coastal fishery
resources in some areas has led to the
development of marine cage culture.
The earliest record of cage culture
practices dates back to the late 1800s in
Southeast Asia, particularly in the fresh-
water lakes and river systems of Kampuchea
(Coche, 1976; Pantulu, 1979; Beveridge,

in Malaysia, although large-scale cage farm-
ing in marine waters really gained ground in
the 1980s and in inland waters in the 1990s
(Shariff and Nagaraj, 2000). Korea started
growing a European variety of common carp
and maintained yellowtail in holding cage
enclosures in the late 1970s. By the end
of 1980, cage culture of the olive flounder
(Paralichthys olivacens) and black rockfish
©CAB International 2002. Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture
(eds P.T.K. Woo, D.W. Bruno and L.H.S. Lim) 1
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(Sebastes schlegeli) was established, and
developed into a successful aquaculture
industry in the 1990s (Kim, 2000). Cage
culture of groupers (Epinephelus spp.) in the
Philippines has been practised since the
1980s. Mariculture of milkfish in the 1990s
led to the further growth and development of
the industry (Marte et al., 2000).
In Europe, cage culture of rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in fresh water began
in the late 1950s and, in Norway, Atlantic
salmon (Salmo salar) followed in the 1960s.
More than 40% of its rainbow trout comes
from freshwater cages (Beveridge, 1987).

efforts were geared towards improvement in
the culture of tilapia and cage design (Coche,
1976).
Currently many fish species have been
cultivated in various designs and sizes of
cages in Asia, Europe and other parts of
the world (Table 1.1). Tilapia and carp pre-
dominate in freshwater cage culture in Asia,
while salmonids are commonly farmed in
Europe and the Americas.
2 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species cultured Country Reference
Anguillidae
Anguilla japonica
(eel)
Bagridae
Mystus nemerus
(mystid catfish)
Chanidae
Chanos chanos
(milkfish)
Channidae
Channa macrocephalus
Channa micropeltes
(snakehead)
Channa striatus
Giant snakehead
Characidae
Colossoma macropomum
(Amazonian fish tambaqui)

et al
. (1988)
Chellappa
et al
. (1995)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)
Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)
Mazid (1995)
Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Table 1.1a. Major species of freshwater finfishes cultured in cages.
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Introduction and History of Cage Culture 3
Species cultured Country Reference
Red tilapia
Sarotherodon aureus
Sarotherodon esculentus
Sarotherodon galilaeus
Sarotherodon mossambicus
Sarotherodon mossambicus
×
S. honorum
(hybrid)
Sarotherodon niloticus

Nigeria
Philippines
Taiwan
Guatemala
USA
Sri Lanka
Ivory Coast
Nigeria
Kenya
Philippines
Brazil
Dominican
Republic
Togo
USA
Sierra Leone
Togo
Dominican
Republic
Nigeria
Colombia
Zimbabwe
Tanzania
Togo
Kenya
Nigeria
Vietnam
South Africa
Egypt
Thailand

. (1972)
Suffern
et al
. (1978)
Anon. (1980); Muthukumarana and Wcerakoon
(1987)
Coche (1975, 1976, 1977, 1978); Campbell (1976);
Shehadeh (1976); de Kimpe (1978); Amoikon
(1987)
Konikoff (1975); Campbell (1987)
Haller (1974)
PCARRD (1981); Aragon
et al
. (1985); Guerrero
(1985, 1996)
FAO (1977)
Olivo (1987)
Issifou and Amegavie (1987)
McGinty (1991)
Iscandari (1987)
Issifou and Amegavie (1987)
Olivo (1987)
Ali (1987)
Patino (1976); McLarney (1978); Popma (1978)
Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)
Ibrahim
et al
. (1974)
Issifou and Amegavie (1987)
Haller (1974)

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
(silver carp)
(Javanese carp)
Leptobarbus hoeveni
(slender
carp/sultan fish)
Nile carp
River carp
Eleotridae
Goby
Oxyeleotris marmoratus
(sand
goby)
Ictaluridae
Ictalurus punctatus
(Channel
catfish)
Moronidae
Morone chryops
×
M. saxatilis
(sunshine bass)
Osphronemidae
Osphronemus gourami
(giant gouramy)
Malaysia
Philippines
Sri Lanka
India
Indonesia

Vietnam
USA
USA
Indonesia
Malaysia
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Fermin (1990); Marte
et al
. (2000)
Muthukumarana and Weerakoon (1987)
Basavaraja (1994)
Costa-Pierce and Effendi (1988)
Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Thana (1995)
Thana (1995)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Pradhan and Pantha (1995)
Muthukumarana and Weerakoon (1987)
Lovatelli (1997)
Siemelink
et al
. (1982); Ishak (1987)
Huisman (1979)
Bandyopadhyay
et al
. (1991)

et al
. (1988)
Menasveta (2000)
Lovatelli (1997)
Schmittou (1969); Perry and Avault (1972); Collins
and Delmendo (1979); Parker (1988); Masser and
Duarte (1992); Burtle and Newton (1993); Webster
et al
. (1994)
Kelly and Kohler, 1996; Pagan (1970); Suwanasart
(1971); Pagan-Font (1975)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Table 1.1a.
Continued
.
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Introduction and History of Cage Culture 5
Species cultured Country Reference
Pangasiidae
Pangasius bocourti
(yellow catfish)

(Atlantic salmon)
Salmo trutta
(broom trout)
Stenodus
(whitefish)
Sciaenidae
Sciaenops ocellatus
(red drum or
red fish)
Siluridae
Silurus glanis
(sheat fish)
Esox lucius
(pike)
Puntius gonionotus
(minnows)
Puntius schwanenfeldii
(tinfoil barb)
(minnows)
Puntius
spp.
Vietnam
Vietnam
Cambodia
Vietnam
Cambodia
Cambodia
Vietnam
Vietnam
Thailand

Vietnam
Cambodia
Lovatelli (1997)
Lovatelli (1997); Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Thana (1995)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Thana (1995)
Thana (1995)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Thuoc (1995)
Menasveta (2000)
Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Tamazouzt
et al
. (1993)
Marciak (1979)
Mamcarz (1984)
Mamcarz (1984)
Schultz
et al
. (1993)
Jager and Nellen (1981)
Champigneulle and Rojas-Beltran (1990)
Mamcarz and Kozlowski (1992)
Menton (1991)
Srivastava
et al

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6 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species cultured Country Reference
Chanidae
Chanos chanos
(milkfish)
Cichlidae
Oreochromis urolepsis hornorum
×
O.
mossambicus
male (Florida red tilapia)
Moronidae
Morone chryops
×
M. saxatilis
(sunshine
bass)
Pisodonophis
Pisodonophis boro
(brackishwater eel)
Salmonidae
Coregonus lavaretus
(Baltic whitefish)
Oncorhynchus mason rhodurus
(Amago
salmon)

Seriola magatlana
(Pacific yellowtail)
Seriola purpurescens
(amberjack)
Seriola quinqueradiata
(yellowtail)
Sturgeon
Sturgeon (beluga × sterlet, ‘bestir’)
Trachinotus carolinus
(pompano)
Trachinotus oaitensis
(pompano)
Trachinotus teraia
Centropomidae
Centropomus nigrescens
(snook)
Lates calcarifer
(seabass)
Japan
Taiwan
Ecuador
Hong Kong
Japan
China
Korea
Iran
Russia
USA
Ecuador
France

Smith (1973)
Benetti
et al
. (1995)
Trebaol (1991)
Benetti
et al
. (1995)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Wong (1995)
Sakaras (1982); Kungvankij (1987b)
Singh (1991); Hannafi
et al
. (1995)
Toledo
et al
. (1991); Fermin
et al
. (1993);
Alcantara
et al
. (1995); Lopez (1995)
Anon. (1986); Cheong and Lee (1987)
Sakaras (1984); Kungvankij (1987a); Tookwinas
(1990b); Chaitanawisuti and Piyatiratitivorakul
(1994a)
Lovatelli (1997)
Barlow

Lutjanidae
Lutjanus argentimaculatus
(red
snapper)
Lutjanus erythropeterus
Lutjanus johni
(golden snapper)
Lutjanus russelli
(Russell’s snapper)
Lutjanus sebae
Lutjanus stellatus
Pagrus major
(Japanese red
seabream/red seabream)
Moronidae
Dicentrarchus labrax
(seabass)
(European seabass)
Oplegnathidae
Oplegnathus fasciatus
(rock bream)
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthys olivaceus
(bastard
halibut/flounder)
(olive flounder)
Percichthyidae
Lateolabrax japonicus
(Japanese
seabass)

Taiwan
Egypt
Italy
Israel
Korea
Japan
Japan
Japan
Korea
Korea
Korea
Finland
UK
Ferraz de Lima
et al
. (1992)
Cruz and Ridha (1990b)
Rust
et al
. (1991)
Lovatelli (1997)
Pradhan and Pantha (1995)
Kaspruk and Tvejte (1994); Hjelt (2000)
Jones and Iwama (1990)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Ali (1987); Hannafi
et al
. (1995)

Kissil (1996)
Kim (1995)
Watanabe (1988a,b)
Hiraishi
et al
. (1995)
Kikuchi
et al
. (1993)
Kim (1995)
Jeon
et al
. (1992)
Kim (1995)
Salminen
et al
. (1992)
Martinez-Cordero
et al
. (1994)
Continued
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8 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species cultured Country Reference
Limanda herzentein
(brown sole)

(Western African
pompano)
Sebastidae
Sebastes schlegeli
(Schlegel’s
black rock fish)
Scophthalmidae
Scophthalmus maximus
(turbot)
Serranidae
Cephalopholis mimata
Cephalopholis pachycenteron
Epinephelus akaara
Epinephelus alwaora
(grouper)
Epinephelus amblycephalus
Epinephelus areolatus
(spotted grouper)
Epinephelus bleeker
Epinephelus bleekeri
Epinephelus coioides
Epinephelus fario
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus
Korea
Japan
Taiwan
Iran
Chile
Yugoslavia
Canada

Indonesia
Kim (1995)
Hiraishi
et al
. (1995)
Su
et al
. (2000)
Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Jelvez-Flores (1992)
Teskeredzic and Teskeredzic (1990)
Srivastava
et al
. (1991); Cornel and Whoriskey
(1993)
Jones and Iwama (1990)
Marciak (1979)
Egan and Kenney (1990); Menton and Allen
(1991); Duston and Saunders (1994)
Glen (1974); Went (1980); Worniallo and
Mamcarz (1985); Sangster and Munro (1991);
Smith
et al
. (1993)
Kraakenes
et al
. (1991)
Rottiers (1994)
Arzel
et al

et al
. (1997)
Su
et al
. (2000)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Lim
et al
. (1990); Chao and Lim (1991)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Table 1.1c.
Continued
.
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Introduction and History of Cage Culture 9
Species cultured Country Reference
Epinephelus hexagonatus
Epinephelus macrospilos
Epinephelus malabaricus
Epinephelus merra
Epinephelus microdon
Epinephelus moara
(kelp bass)
Epinephelus salmonoides
Epinephelus sexfaciatus

Sparrus macrocephalus
Tetraodontidae
Takifugu rubripes
(tiger puffer)
Japan
Philippines
India
Philippines
China
Philippines
Philippines
Vietnam
Japan
Japan
China
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Japan
Malaysia
Philippines
Vietnam
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Philippines
Taiwan
Philippines
Hong Kong
India

. (1988)
Sayong (1981)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Kungvankij
et al
. (1986)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Chua (1979); Chua and Teng (1979, 1980)
Kohno
et al
. (1988)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Leong (1998)
Quinitio and Toledo (1991)
Anon. (1986)
Tookwinas (1990a); Menasveta (2000)
Toledo
et al
. (1993)
Maruyama and Ishida (1976)
Sayong (1981)
Wong (1995)
Hamsa and Kasim (1992)
Lanjumin (1982)

. (1991)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Shepherd and Bromage (1988)
Moon
et al
. (1993); Kim (1995)
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The rapid growth of the industry in most
countries may be attributed to: (i) suitable
offshore sites for cage culture; (ii) well
established breeding techniques that yield a
sufficient quantity of various marine and
freshwater fish juveniles; (iii) availability of
supporting industries, such as feed and fish-
ing net manufacturers, and fish processors
and packers; (iv) strong research and devel-
opment initiatives from institutions, govern-
ment and universities; and (v) the private
sector ensuring refinement and improve-
ment of techniques/culture systems, thereby
further developing the industry.
With the experiences seen in salmon
farming, seabream (Sparus auratus) and sea-
bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) cage culture

systems. By integrating the cage culture
system into the aquatic ecosystem the carry
-
ing capacity per unit area is optimized
because the free flow of current brings in
fresh water and removes metabolic wastes,
excess feed and faecal matter (Beveridge,
1983). Operationally, this has a number of
advantages. Some cage designs, especially
those used in inshore cultures, are rela-
tively easy to construct with minimal
skilled labour, and cages utilize minimal
physical facilities and space. Economically,
cage culture is a low-input farming practice
with high economic return. However, cage
culture is a high risk and labour-intensive
operation. The practice is vulnerable to
natural hazards (strong tides, storms and
typhoons) and can be affected by deteriorat-
ing water quality attributed to chronic
pollution from oil and chemical spills from
oil tankers and cargo vessels (Tabira, 1980;
Nose, 1985). In addition, poaching and
vandalism are reported by cage farmers. The
advantages and limitations of cage culture
are summarized in Table 1.2.
In view of the high production attain-
able in cage culture system and the presence
of large sheltered coastal waters in many
countries, marine cage farming can play

cage and culture specifications is provided
in Table 1.3.
Types of cages
A fish cage is usually made up of netting
with an opening at the surface to facilitate
feeding, removal of debris and dead fish,
and for harvesting. The netcage system
consists of a netcage proper and the frame,
which supports the nets. The frame is
normally kept afloat by buoys, usually
metal (or traditionally plastic drums), and
held in position by anchors. Cages may be
classified as follows.
Fixed
A stationary cage is fastened to a fixed
bamboo or wooden pole at its corners. It
consists of a net bag supported by posts
driven into the bottom of a lake or river. It is
traditionally used in tropical countries like
the Philippines for raising fish fingerlings.
It is inexpensive and simple to build. This
type of cage is normally restricted to shal-
low areas with suitable substrates usually in
freshwater systems.
Floating
A floating cage consists of a floating unit
from which a single cage or a battery of
netcages is suspended. Floating cages are
widely used for fish rearing in both fresh
and coastal waters. They are less restrictive

metabolites and maintain high dissolved oxygen
levels; rapid fouling of cage walls requires frequent
cleaning
Absolute dependence on artificial feeding unless in
sewage ponds; high-quality balanced rations
essential; feed losses possible through cage walls
Sometimes important interference from the natural
fish population, i.e. small fish enter cages and
compete for food
Natural fish populations act as a potential reservoir
of disease and parasites, and the likelihood of
spreading disease by introducing new cultured
stocks is increased
Increased difficulties of disease and parasite
treatment
Risks of theft are increased
Amortization of capital investment may be short
Increased labour costs for handling, stocking,
feeding and maintenance
Table 1.2. Advantages and limitations of cage fish culture technique.
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12 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species
Cage/pen
dimension Culture specifics
Country/

netcage
3 × 3 × 2 m floating netcage
2.5 × 2.5 × 1.5 m bamboo and polythene
netting
5 × 5 × 2 m, galvanized iron pipe and
bamboo, concrete weight
Stocking density is 30,000 fingerlings weighing 10 g; feeding
with commercial pellets or crumbles, given 3× daily to satiation,
and with FCR of 1.77; 138 days culture period, 94% survival;
production about 5–7 days
Stocking density is 40 fish m
−3
of size 18 cm; feeding with trash
fish, once daily; 9 months culture period, 95.4% survival;
production of 490 g per fish
Stocking density is 44 fish m
−3
of size 80–100 g; feeding with
trash fish, cooked rice bran and aquatic vegetation, with FCR
of 4.5:1; 6–7 months of culture, 90% survival; production of
600 g per fish
Stocking density is 60–80 fish per cage, sex ratio is 13–28
female:male fish; feeding with trash fish daily at 3–5% of body
weight; culture period of 4 years; fish matured and naturally
spawned; also demonstrates an efficient, simple and cheap
egg collector (116 million eggs in one breeding season)
Stocking density is 1 fish m
−3
, sex ratio of 1:1 female:male fish;
feeding with trash fish and commercial bait fish (the pilchard

.,
1991)
Australia (Rimmer,
1998)
Australia (Barlow
et al
.,
1995)
Malaysia (Singh, 1991)
Philippines (Alcantara
et al
., 1995)
Thailand (Tookwinas,
1990b)
Table 1.3.
Fish species and culture specifics of fish in Asia and Australia. (From Buendia, 1998).
22
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Introduction and History of Cage Culture 13
Grouper (
Epinephelus
spp.)
Red snapper (
Lutjanus
argentimaculatus
)
3 × 3 × 2m,4× 4 × 2mor5× 5 × 2m

and
Artemia
(nursery); FCR of 2.5–2.8:1 for dry
pellets and 6.3:1 for trash fish; culture period of 1 month
(nursery), 3 months (transition) or 8 months (grow-out);
production of 500–800 g per fish
Stocking density is 10–100 m
−3
of size 7.5–10 cm; feeding with
artificial feeds and live or frozen trash fish and crustaceans,
feeds given at 10% body weight during the first 2 months, 5%
thereafter until harvest; 8 months culture period; production of
580 g per fish, 80% survival
Stocking density is 12–100 m
−3
of size 12 cm or 20 g; feeds
given at 10% of body weight on the first 2 months, then at 5%
on the third month; 10–18 months culture period; production of
700–900 g per fish
Stocking density is 90 fish m
−3
of size 12 cm or 20 g; feeding
with chopped carangids (
Seloroides
spp.), feed given twice
daily to satiation; 10 months culture period; production of 890 g
per fish, 83% survival
Stocking density is 6 fish m
−3
of size 30 g or 100 fish m

Golden snapper
(
Lutjanus jobni
)
Red seabream
(
Pagrus major
)
Yellowtail (
Seriola
quinqueradiata
)
Rabbitfish (
Siganus
canalculatus
)
Carp
Giant gourami
(
Osphronemus
goramy
)
5 × 5 × 3 m, wood and plastic drums
Square, circle cages of size 4 × 4 × 3m,
4 × 4 × 4m,5× 5 × 5m,7× 7 × 7mor
20 × 20 × 5 m, cages may be synthetic,
nylon-coated wire or bamboo with styrofoam
as buoy
Square, circle net enclosures made of
bamboo, wood, 50 mm steel pipes; also big

−3
for size 1 kg; feeding with trash fish (anchovy, sardines,
sand lance) and moist pellets; feed given 1–4× daily at 1–3% of
body weight or at 4–8% of body weight for fish less than 100 g;
FCR of about 5–9:1; 1–2 years culture period; production of
2.5–6 kg per fish
Stocking density is 25 fish of size 0.89 g per cage; feeding with
moist pellets once every 2 days at 3% of body weight; 20
months culture period or until fish reach maturity and spawning
(about 3.7 kg size)
Stocking density is 15 fish of size 48–68 g per cage; feeding
with formulated diet, given 2× daily to satiation; 100 days culture
period; production of 119 g per fish, 100% survival
Stocking density is 1 kg m
−3
(8–10 fish per kg); no feeding; 6
months of culture in sewage canal; production of 800 g per fish
Stocking density is 4–5 million fish ha
−1
(3-day-old
hatchery-reared); feeding with a mixture of groundnut, oil cake
and rice bran; with periodic dressing of organic (manure) and
inorganic fertilizers; 3–4 months of culture
Stocking density is 15 fish m
−3
of size 14 g or 9 cm; feeding with
yam and formulated diet, 3× daily at 5% of body weight;
18 weeks of culture; production of 180 g fish, 99% survival
Singapore (Anon., 1986)
Japan (Shepherd and