United States Air Pollution Training Institute (APTI) July 2003
Environmental Protection Environmental Research Center, MD E142-01
Agency Research Triangle Park, NC 27711

Principles and Practices
of Air Pollution Control
Student Manual
APTI Course 452
Third Edition


Authors
Dr. William Franek, PhD, PE
Mr. Lou DeRose, J.D. Developed by
ICES Ltd.
EPA Contract No. 68D99022 iii
Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of Alpha Gamma Technologies,
Inc., whose preparation of SI:422 was used as the basis for this course development.

Institute, USEPA, MD E142-01, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711.

Sets of slides and films designed for use in the training course of which
this publication is a part may be borrowed from the Air Pollution Training
Institute upon written request. The slides may be freely copied. Some films
may be copied; others must be purchased from the commercial distributor.

This consent does not extend to copying or transmission by any means
– graphic or electronic – for any other purpose, such as for advertising or
promotional purposes, for creating a new collective work, for resale, or for
information storage and retrieval systems.

State and local air pollution control agencies, U.S. EPA offices, and
federal offices designated by U.S. EPA are authorized to make copies of
this document in connection with telecourses.

Printed on recycled paper in the United States of America.

v
Course Description APTI 452: Principles and Practices of Air Pollution Control is a three-day,
resident instructional course designed to present an introductory view of all
major, practical aspects of air pollution control. The course is intended primarily
for employees unfamiliar with governmental control of air pollution or those who
require a general knowledge of the principles and practices associated with air

content. vi
DISCLAMER

This document does not constitute U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use. vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents vi

Table of Figures vii

Table of Tables viii

Chapter 1: Control Program History 1-1

Chapter 2: Health and Environmental Effects of Air Pollution 2-1
viii
TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 2-1 Upper Respiratory System 2-5

Figure 2-2 Lower Respiratory System 2-6

Figure 2-3 Bronchial Tubes 2-7

Figure 2-4 Susceptible Populations 2-8

Figure 2-5 The Greenhouse Effect 2-21

Figure 2-6 The Risk Assessment Process 2-25

Figure 2-7 Pollutant Effect, Human and Animal Studies 2-26

Figure 2-8 Exposure Modeling Factors 2-28

Figure 2-9 Dose-Response Relationship for Cancer 2-28

Figure 2-10 Dose-Response Relationship for Non-cancer Effects 2-29

Figure 3-1 Rotating Cup Anemometer 3-4


Figure 6-6 Clean Air Status and Trends Network (CASTNET) Site Locations 6-21

Figure 6-7 Air Toxics Pilot City Sites and Proposed Trend Site Locations 6-24

Figure 7-1 Representative Point Selections 7-6

Figure 7-2 Isokinetic Sampling of Particles from a Stack 7-7

Figure 7-3 Isokinetic Conditions 7-7

Figure 7-4 Over Kinetic Conditions 7-8

Figure 7-5 Under Kinetic Conditions 7-8

Figure 7-6 Sampling Train for Particulate Emissions 7-11

Figure 7-7 Double Pass Opacity Monitor 7-12

Figure 7-8 System Source Monitoring Classification Diagram 7-13

Figure 8-1 Activities for Preparing an Inventory 8-4

Figure 8-2 Approach to Emission Estimation 8-6

Figure 8-3 CHIEF Web Site 8-10

Figure 8-4 Spatial Allocation of Emissions to Grid Cells 8-16

Figure 9-1 Venturi Scrubber 9-11


Figure 11-3 Stage II Gasoline Vapor Recovery System 11-11

Figure 11-4 Basic Controls for SI Engine Exhaust and Evaporative Emissions 11-13

Figure 12-1 Pollution Prevention Hierarchy 12-11

Figure 12-2 Recycling Options 12-11

xi
TABLE OF TABLES Table 1-1 Comparison of Air Quality Management Strategies 1-17

Table 2-1 Human Health Effects of Criteria Pollutants 2-16

Table 6-1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards 6-5

Table 6-2 Air Quality Index Descriptor Chart 6-14

Table 6-3 Relationship Among Monitoring Objectives and Scale
Representativeness 6-15

Table 6-4 Summary of Spatial Scales Applicable for SLAMS and
Required for NAMS for each Criteria Pollutant 6-16



THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
CHAPTER 1
Control Program History
Lesson Goal

At the end of this lesson, you will demonstrate general understanding of and
familiarity with the historical overview of air pollution control, program history, and the
major legislative landmarks that have defined the parameters of air quality management
in the United States by successfully completing the review questions at the end of the
chapter.
Lesson Objectives

1. Identify the historic episodes and events that led to passage of air
pollution control legislation.
2. Discuss the five major influences that affected the development of air
quality management programs in the United States.
3. Explain the hierarchy of government responsibilities and discuss
the history of regulatory approaches by our local, state, and federal
governments as it relates to air pollution management.
4. Describe federal regulatory involvement from the Air Pollution
Control Act (1955) to the Clean Air Act Amendments (1990).
5. Explain the four regulatory strategies used in the development of an
air pollution management program, and describe the implementation


Godish, Thad, “Regulation and Public Policy,” Air Quality, 3rd Edition, Lewis:
New York, 1997, pp. 237-286.

Goldsmith, J.R. and Friberg, Lars T., “Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health,” In:
A.C. Stern (Ed.), Air Pollution, Vol. II, Academic Press: New York, 1977, pp.
470- 474.

Martineau, R.; Novello, D. (Ed.), The Clean Air Act Handbook, American Bar
Association, 1998.

Patrick, D. (Ed.), Toxic Air Pollution Handbook, Air and Waste Management
Association, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1994, pp. 3-10.

Shy, Carl M., et al., Health Effects of Air Pollution, New York, American
Thoracic Society, Medical Section of American Lung Association, 1978,
p. 13.

Stern, A.C. (Ed.), Air Pollution, Vol. V, Air Quality Management, New
York: Academic Press, 1977.

Stern, A.C., “History of Air Pollution Legislation in the United States,”
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, Vol. 32, No. 1,
January 1982.

U.S. EPA, Air Pollution Episodes: A Citizen’s Handbook, GPO
Publication No. 1972-0-452-729, 1971.

U.S. EPA, Air Pollution Control Orientation Course, APTI SI: 422.


nineteenth centuries, and air pollution problems
escalated in the twentieth century with the advent
of the automobile. The problem of air pollution
grew in the mid-twentieth century, leaving
catastrophic effects on human health and the
environment in its wake.
Smoke, produced by burning coal and wood, was the earliest form of air pollution.

Smoke and ash produced by power plants contributed significantly to the problem of air
pollution in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
By 1940, air pollution in the United States and
emerging public opinion pressured government
regulators to act. Smog formed around Los
Angeles, while other metropolitan areas around
the country began to report degradations in air
quality and visibility. Growing familiarity with
environmental issues and increased public
pressure hastened federal and state action.
California was the first state to pass air
pollution regulations. Shortly after California acted
in 1947, the federal government convened the first
National Air Pollution Symposium composed of the
leading environmental specialists and government
representatives of the day. This landmark

pollution in the twentieth century. They provide
direct evidence of the destructive capacity of
modern air pollution.

By the 1940s, smog formed around Los Angeles and the first state environmental
legislation was passed.

In 1955, Congress passed the first federal environmental legislation − the Air Pollution
Control Act.
Muese River Valley (1930). The best known
of the acute air pollution episodes occurred when
pollutants were trapped in the Meuse River Valley
of Belgium. Public officials observed a significant
increase in reports of human death and illness
when the concentration of air pollution was at its
highest. Sixty-three people died in the first week
of December 1930, prompting public health
officials to examine the relationship between these
deaths and high concentrations of SO
2
in the
atmosphere. Their findings revealed that weather
patterns had a significant impact on sulfur dioxide
concentrations, particularly during periods of
temperature inversion (Shy, 1978).
Donora, Pennsylvania (1948). In the early
morning hours of October 26, 1948, a temperature
inversion coupled with foggy weather settled over
a horseshoe-shaped valley along the
Monongahela River near Pittsburgh. Nestled in

health occurred in the London Fog of 1952. In a
five-day period, a temperature inversion covered
the Thames River Valley, trapping deadly acid
aerosols in the atmosphere. More people died in
this acute air pollution event than in any other
episode in

Sixty-three people died in the Muese River Valley due to exposure to high concentrations
of SO
2
.

Over 4,000 people died in 1950 when a deadly temperature inversion settled over
London.
recorded history. Over 4,000 people succumbed
to bronchitis, pneumonia, and respiratory and
cardiac disease. Because the death rate was so
alarming, the British
Parliament reinstated King Edward’s thirteenth
century precedent and immediately barred the
burning of soft coal in London (Shy, 1978).

Unfortunately, only ten years later a similar
incident claimed an additional 700 lives. Historical
records reveal the 1952 incident was not the only
recorded event of its kind. Records also indicate
there were detectable increases in deaths
associated with fog in December 1873, January
1880, February 1882, December 1891, and again
in December 1892. In total, 300 people died in the

had unresolved claims pending before Indian
courts late into the last century (Cohen, 1994).
Air pollution events such as these graphically
demonstrate the fragile nature of human health
and the environment and the disastrous effects
that air pollution can have on both. Continued
concern over events such as these has resulted in
environmental legislation aimed at preventing such
occurrences in the future.

Due to increased concentrations of sulfur dioxide and atmospheric inversions along the
East Coast, over 200 people died in New York City.
Improvements in Science
As a result of air pollution episodes and public
outcry about the Los Angeles smog problem,
public policy initiated a search to find answers and
causes. Researchers explored human health and
the environmental effects of air pollutants. This
research paved the way for improvements in
science.

Air Pollution research began in California when
the City and County of Los Angeles, and later the
State of California, studied its smog problem.
Around 1950, California Senator Thomas Kuchel
appealed to the U.S. Congress stating that air
pollution research efforts and costs should be
borne nationally rather than exclusively by
California. In 1955, President Eisenhower and
Congress responded by passing legislation that

Improvements were also made in science by
the creation and growth of environmental health
science and the increased quality of scientific
research. By 1980, air pollution meteorology
came of age and mathematical models of the
pollution of the atmosphere were created. In
addition, a wide variety of measuring instruments
were developed to meet the pressing need for air
quality monitoring systems. Professor A.J. Haagen-Smith was one of the early pioneers to establish the link between
smog and automobile emissions.

In 1963, P.J. Lawther advanced scientific understanding about the important link
between human mortality and morbidity and pollutants in the atmosphere.
Over the last thirty years environmental
science has become a discipline in itself,
generating business and increasing the need to
document and improve its knowledge base. This
has led to a variety of scientific views, sometimes
in support while at other times in opposition, but
always directed toward refining the question of
“What is good science?” and “How much do we
have to know before we take action?”

Changes in Society and Economy
Population growth, industrialization, increased
wealth and changing societal attitudes were
among the significant changes that took place in

in fuel consumption. Increases in such
consumption caused the air pollution problem to
proliferate from large cities to rural areas, creating
unhealthy and unsightly smog.

Environmental concerns are a luxury only a
wealthy nation can afford. While the poor were
consumed with

Population growth, industrial-ization, increased wealth, and changing social attitudes
were important factors that paved the way for increased concern about environmental
issues.
attaining basic necessities, air pollution failed to
gain importance. Those who participated in the
environmental awaking were members of the ever-
growing American middle class. Changing social
attitudes were now more concerned with quality of
life issues such as environmental protection. Environmental Activism and Public Awareness
The final two influences on the development of
air pollution control programs were an increased
public awareness to environ-mental issues and the
birth and development of environmental activism
in this country.

Modern day concerns about the environment
grew in the 1960’s, with the surfacing of social
revolution in the United States. Concern about the

concerned public interest groups. Among these,
the Sierra Club lobbies Congress on
environmental issues ranging from nuclear energy
to wetlands preservation, and the Natural
Resource Defense Council blocks economic
development in courts by suing firms for failure to
pay adequate attention to environmental laws.
Other environmental organizations

Earth Day was first celebrated in the spring of 1970, and was one of the first precursors
of environ-mental activism in the United States.
include The Friends of the Earth, The National
Wildlife
Federation, Environmental Action, Environmental
Defense Fund, and The Nature Conservancy.

Today, private environmental organizations like
these play an important role, not only in shaping
public policy but advancing effective
environmental education. Since 1971, the
National Association for Environmental Education
and other organizations like it have become an
essential forum for teachers, conservationists,
naturalists, and scientists to advance
environmental viewpoints and perspectives.

Hierarchy of Government
Responsibilities
The hierarchy of governmental air pollution
responsibilities involves a top-down approach.

Air pollution complaints were originally litigated through common law nuisance or
trespass provisions before 1900.
density. Today, the majority of opacity ordinances
prohibit opacity greater than 20%.

State Governments
At the turn of the century, courts of law
expanded state authority by finding air pollution
control actions were within Tenth Amendment,
“police power” of the state, statutes. In 1910 and
1912 respectively, Massachusetts and Rhode
Island were the first states to pass air pollution
(smoke control) laws. In 1947, California was the
first state to pass laws regulating air pollution
beyond regulating black smoke emission from
industrial stacks. This law gave authority to
counties to regulate air pollution. Oregon, in 1952,
passed the first state law that provided statewide
authority to a state air pollution control agency. In
1956, California formed its first state air pollution
control agency and to address air pollution