Fermented Foods
and Beverages
of the World
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Boca Raton London New York
Fermented Foods
and Beverages
of the World
edited by
Jyoti Prakash Tamang
Kasipathy Kailasapathy
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
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International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-9495-4 (Hardback)
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2 Diversity of Fermented Foods 41
Jyoti Prakash Tamang
3 Diversity of Fermented Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks 85
Jyoti Prakash Tamang
4 Functional Yeasts and Molds inFermented Foods and Beverages 127
Ko E. Aidoo and M. J. Robert Nout
5 Fermented Vegetable Products 149
Carmen Wacher, Gloria Díaz-Ruiz, and Jyoti Prakash Tamang
6 Fermented Legumes: Soybean and Non-Soybean Products 191
Toshirou Nagai and Jyoti Prakash Tamang
7 Fermented Soybean Pastes Miso and Shoyu with Reference to Aroma 225
Etsuko Sugawara
8 Fermented Cereal Products 247
Jean-Pierre Guyot
9 Fermented Milk Products 263
Baltasar Mayo, Mohammed Salim Ammor, Susana Delgado,
andÁngelAlegría
10 Fermented Fish Products 289
Junus Salampessy, Kasipathy Kailasapathy, and Namrata Thapa
11 Fermented Meat Products 309
Martin Adams
12 Ethnic African Fermented Foods 323
N. A. Olasupo, S. A. Odunfa, and O. S. Obayori
vi Contents
13 Tea, Coffee, and Cacao 353
Ulrich Schillinger, Louis Ban-Kof, and Charles M. A. P. Franz
14 Probiotic
and Prebiotic Fermented Foods 377
Kasipathy Kailasapathy
15 Health

nd
s
mok-
ing,
d
rying,
a
nd
sa
lting
p
rocesses
w
ere
d
eveloped
b
y
a
ncient
p
eople
t
o
p
reserve
f
oods
f
or

b
e
m
ade
i
n
t
he
C
aucasus
a
nd
M
esopotamia
a
s
e
arly
a
s
6
000
B
C,
a
nd
t
he
c
olonization

h
as
b
een
do
cumented
b
y
s
everal
h
istorians
a
s
f
ar
b
ack
a
s
4
000
B
C
b
ased
o
n
h
istorical

t
he
r
egion
f
or
m
ore
t
han
2
500
y
ears.
F
ood
p
repared
b
y
d
ifferent
c
ommunities
is u
nique
a
nd
d
istinct

a
nimal
sou
rces.
A
pproximately
5
0–400
g p
er
c
apita
o
f
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
a
lcoholic
b
everages
a
re
c
onsumed
d
aily

c
ulturally
a
ccept-
able
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
a
re
c
onsumed
a
s
s
taple
f
oods,
c
urrries,
s
tews,
s
ide
d

c
andied
f
oods,
m
asticators,
c
olorants,
t
astemakers,
a
nd
a
lcoholic
a
nd
n
onalcoholic
b
everages.
A
bout
5
000
v
ari-
eties
o
f
u

eople
b
elonging
t
o
d
ifferent
c
ommunities
a
nd
et
hnicities
a
cross
t
he
w
orld.
Fermented

f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
h
arbor
d

cid
b
acteria,
b
acilli,
a
nd
m
icrococci.
M
icroorganisms
t
ransform
t
he
c
hemical
c
onstituents
o
f
r
aw
m
aterials
d
uring
f
ermentation
a

exture;
p
reserve
p
erishable
f
oods;
f
ortify
p
rod-
ucts

w
ith
e
ssential
a
mino
a
cids,
h
ealth-promoting
b
ioactive
c
ompounds,
v
itamins,
a

igestibility;
a
nd
s
timulate
p
robiotic
f
unctions.
M
ost
o
f
t
he
e
thnic
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
a
re
p
roduced
b

onsortium
o
f
m
icroorganisms
i
n
t
he
f
orm
o
f
a

d
ry,
c
ereal-based
s
tarter.
D
iversity
w
ithin
t
he
s
pecies
o

overing
t
he
d
escription
o
f
p
roducts;
c
ulinary
p
ractices;
a
nd
t
he
m
icrobiology,
b
iochemistry,
n
utrition,
a
nd
f
unctional
p
roperties
o

nd
n
on-soybean
l
egumes,
f
ermented
c
ereals,
f
ermented
m
ilks,
f
ermented/dried/smoked

sh,
f
ermented/dried/smoked
m
eats,
f
ermented
r
oot/tuber
p
roducts,
f
ermented
b

tc.
T
hereis
viii Preface
a
c
omplete
c
hapter
d
evoted
t
o
t
he
d
ietary
c
ulture
a
nd
a
ntiquity
o
f
f
ermented
f
oodsand beverages ofthe world.
We

ajor
a
s
w
ell
a
s
m
inor
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
o
f
t
he
w
orld.
W
e
a
re
g
rateful
t

ell-recognized
s
cientists
a
nd
r
esearchers
w
ith
v
ast
e
xperience
i
n
t
he

eld
o
f
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages.
W

ringing
o
ut
t
his
b
ook,
a
nd
t
hanks
t
o
M
artin
A
dams,
J
ean-
Pierre

G
uyot,
M
.J.
R
obert
N
out,
K

dunfa,
T
oshirou
N
agai,
E
tsuko
S
ugawara,
B
altasar
M
ayo,
M
ohammed
S
alim
A
mmor,
J
unus
S
alampessy,
N
amrata
T
hapa,
O
.S.
O

rateful
t
o
T
aylor
&

F
rancis
f
or
p
ublishing
t
his
c
omprehensive
b
ook
o
n
i
mportant
t
opics.
W
e
h
ope
t

akers,
a
nthropologists,
h
istorians,
g
eographers,
e
thnologists,
s
oci-
ologists,

a
nd
m
edia
p
ersons
w
ho
a
re
i
nterested
i
n
f
ermented
f

ew
b
ooks
o
n
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages,
F
ermented Foods and Beverages of the World
i
s
t
he
l
atest
c
ompilation
o
f
v
arious
a
spects
o

he
w
orld.
We

d
edicate
t
his
b
ook
t
o
D
r.
C
.W.
H
esseltine,
P
rof.
K
.H.
S
teinkraus,
P
rof.
M
ichio
K

nd
b
everages
o
f
t
he
w
orld
i
s
i
mmeasurable;
t
heir
m
emories
w
ill
r
emain
i
n
t
his
b
ook
f
orever.
W

tudy
i
n
d
epth
t
he
c
ulture
a
nd
s
cience
i
nvolved
i
n
t
he
p
roduc-
tion

o
f
f
ermented
f
oods
a

o
n
f
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages
f
or
t
he
p
ast
2
3
y
ears.
H
e
o
btained
h
is
P
hD
f
rom

Japan)
a
nd
t
he
I
nstitute
o
f
H
ygiene
a
nd
T
oxicology
(
Germany).
D
r.
T
amang
w
on
t
he
N
ational
B
ioscience
A

005,
o
ne
o
f
t
he
p
resti-
gious
a
wards,
a
nd
b
ecame
a f
ellow
o
f
t
he
B
iotech
R
esearch
S
ociety
o
f

n
ational
j
ournals,

led
a p
atent,
a
nd
g
uided
se
veral
P
hD
s
tudents.
H
e
ha
s
p
resented
h
is
w
ork
i
n

o
rganizations.
H
e
i
s
a r
egular
r
eviewer
o
f
m
any
p
eer-reviewed
i
nterna-
tional
sc
ientic
j
ournals
i
n
m
icrobiology
a
nd
f

T
aylor
& F
rancis.
P
rof.
T
amang
i
s
a H
ead
o
f
F
ood
M
icrobiology
L
aboratory
a
nd
w
as
t
he

rst
a
cademic

i
n
t
he
S
chool
o
f
N
atural
S
ciences,
U
niversity
o
f
W
estern
S
ydney,
H
awkesbury,
N
ew
S
outh
W
ales,
A
ustralia.

S
ri
L
anka,
a
nd
g
raduate
d
egrees
f
rom
O
bihiro
C
hickusan
U
niversity,
O
bihiro,
J
apan
(
MSc
i
n
a
gricultural
s
cience),

S
ydney,
A
ustralia
(
MBA).
H
e
i
s
t
he
r
esearch
l
eader
f
or
t
he
P
robiotics
a
nd
E
ncapsulated
F
oods
U
nit

h
as
f
ocused
o
n
d
airy
f
ermented
f
oods
i
ncorporating
p
robiotic
b
acteria
a
nd
p
rebiotic
s
ubstances,
h
ealth
b
enets,
m
icroencapsulation,

h
e
h
as
au
thored
a
nd
c
oau-
thored

m
ore
t
han
7
5
p
apers
i
n
s
cientic
j
ournals,
s
everal
c
hapters

5
0
p
resentations
i
n
n
ational and international conferences.
xi
Contributors
Martin Adams
Division of Microbial Sciences
Faculty
of Health and Medical
S
ciences
University
of Surrey
Guildford,
United Kingdom
Ko
E. Aidoo
Department
of Biological and
B
iomedical Sciences
Glasgow
Caledonian University
Glasgow,
United Kingdom

Institute
Villaviciosa,
Spain
Gloria
Díaz-Ruiz
Departamento
de Alimentos y
B
iotecnología
Facultad
de Química
Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de
M
éxico
Mexico
City, Mexico
Mariam
Farhad
Centre
for Plant and Food Science
University
of Western Sydney
Sydney,
New South Wales, Australia
Charles
M. A. P. Franz
Max
Rubner-Institut
Bundesforschungsinstitut

Dairy Research
Institute
Villaviciosa,
Spain
xii Contributors
Toshirou Nagai
Genebank
National
Institute of Agrobiological
S
ciences
Tsukuba,
Japan
M.
J. Robert Nout
Laboratory
of Food Microbiology
Wageningen
University
Wageningen,
the Netherlands
O.
S. Obayori
Department
of Microbiology
Faculty
of Science
Lagos
State University
Ojo,

Centre
for Plant and Food Science
University
of Western Sydney
Sydney,
New South Wales, Australia
Delwen Samuel
Division
of Nutritional Sciences
Kings
College London
London,
United Kingdom
Ulrich Schillinger
Max
Rubner-Institut
Bundesforschungsinstitut
für Ernährung
u
nd Lebensmittel
Karlsruhe,
Germany
Etsuko Sugawara
Faculty
of Education
Iwate
University
Morioka,
Japan
Jyoti Prakash Tamang

1
1
Dietary Cultures and Antiquity
ofFermented Foods and Beverages
Jyoti Prakash Tamang and Delwen Samuel
1.1 Cultural Foods
Each and every community has a distinct food culture or dietary culture that sym-
bolizes its heritage and the sociocultural aspects of its ethnicity. Food prepared by
different communities is unique and distinct due to the geographical location, envi-
ronmental factors, food preference, and the availability of plant or animal sources.
Religions, dietary laws, customary beliefs, and social groupings are some of the char-
acteristics contributing to the description of a culture, while ethnicity is the afliation
with a race, people, or cultural group (McWilliams 2007). Religions and beliefs exert
a strong inuence on dietary habits, particularly through dietary laws such as taboos
imposed on the consumption of certain food items. Fermented foods and beverages
CONTENTS
1.1 Cultural Foods 1
1.1.1 Hindu Foods 2
1.1.2 Buddhist Foods 2
1.1.3 Christian Foods 3
1.1.4 Muslim Foods 4
1.2 World Dietary Culture 4
1.2.1 Use of Hands 5
1.2.2 Use of Chopsticks 5
1.2.3 Use of Cutlery 6
1.2.4 Evolution of Dietary Culture 6
1.3 Antiquity and Cultural Aspects 7
1.3.1 Fermented Vegetables 8
1.3.2 Fermented Soybeans and Non-Soybean Legumes 11
1.3.3 Fermented Cereals 13

h
ave
b
een
m
entioned
i
n
h
oly
b
ooks
s
uch
a
s
t
he
B
hagavad
G
ita,
t
he
B
ible,
a
nd
t
he

s
attvika,
r
aajasika,
a
nd

taamasika.

The

sattvika

food

denotes

food

for

prosperity,

longevity,

intelligence,
s
trength,
he
alth,

ignies
a
ctivity,
p
assion,
a
nd
r
estlessness,
a
nd
t
his
t
ype
i
ncludes
h
ot,
s
our,
s
picy,
a
nd
s
alty
f
oods.
T

ollow
t
he
c
oncept
o
f
p
urity
a
nd
p
ollution
t
hat
d
etermines
i
nterpersonal
a
nd
i
ntercaste
r
elation-
ships
(
Kilara
a
nd

u
ncooked
a
nd
u
nripe
me
als,
a
nd
p
akka
me
aning
r
ipe
a
nd
c
ooked
me
als.
K
accha
f
oods
a
re
h
ighly

f
oods.
P
akka
f
oods
a
re
f
ried,
t
herefore
n
ot
v
ulnerable
t
o
c
ontamination
(
Misra
1
986).
H
indus
a
re
t
radition-

b
eef
i
s
n
ot
e
aten
b
y
H
indus.
F
ish
s
eem
t
o
b
e
m
ore
a
cceptable
t
han
o
ther

esh

f
or
w
orshipping
g
ods,
t
o
f
ree
o
neself
f
rom
t
he
p
ossession
o
f
s
pirits,
a
nd
f
eeding
d
omestic
a
nd

p
articularly
d
uring
f
estivals
a
nd
o
ther
s
ocial
o
ccasions.
C
ooking
i
s
us
ually
d
one
b
y
d
aughter-in-
laws,
d
aughters,
o

o
rthodox
H
indu
me
n
a
void
t
aking
me
als
w
ith
t
heir
w
ives.
W
omen
g
enerally
t
ake
t
heir
me
als
i
n

t
he
f
amily
i
s
p
revalent
i
n
t
he
H
indu
f
ood
c
ulture.
T
raditionally,
H
indu
f
emale
f
amily
me
mbers
e
atafterward.

c
ode,
i
f
a
nimal

esh
i
s
e
aten,
t
he
a
nimal
s
hould
b
e
k
illed
b
y
n
on-Buddhists.
M
onks
a
re

a
void
e
ating
m
eats
a
nd

sh.
M
onks
d
o
n
ot
e
at
a
nything
s
olid
i
n
t
he
a
fternoon.
F
asting

m
onth.
B
uddhists
u
sually
e
at
t
ogether
a
t
h
ome
w
ith
t
heir
f
amilies.
T
ibetan
B
uddhists
u
sually
e
at
n
oodles

(
ground
r
oasted
b
arley
g
rains),
c
hhurpi
(
cottage
c
heese),
k
argyong
(
sausage),
a
nd
c
hyang
(
alcoholic
b
ever-
age)

(
Tamang

T
ibet,
b
y
v
irtue
o
f
i
ts
l
ocation
i
n
h
igh
a
ltitudes
a
nd
c
old
c
limate,
v
egetables
a
nd
p
lant

a
nimals
s
uch
a
s
c
hickens,
d
ucks,
g
oats,
a
nd
p
igs;
Dietary Cultures and Antiquity ofFermented Foods and Beverages 3
they
b
elieve
t
aking
t
he
l
ives
o
f
m
any

m
ore
p
ractical.
F
ish
e
ating
i
s
u
ncommon
a
mong
t
he
T
ibetan
B
uddhists,
s
ince
t
hey
w
orship

sh
f
or

t
he
T
amang
a
nd
t
he
S
herpa,
ot
her
N
epali
c
ommunities
d
o
n
ot
e
at
b
eef
a
nd
y
ak.
N
epali

a
ncestor
w
orship. Buddhists in Southeast Asia eat sh and soybean products.
Buddhist

i
nuence
i
n
t
raditional
J
apan
l
ed
t
o
v
arious
r
estrictions
o
n
t
he
c
onsump-
tion


i
ts
f
ermented
p
roducts
i
nto
J
apanese
c
uisine
w
as
d
ue
t
o
t
he
i
ntroduction
o
f
B
uddhism
i
n
t
he

K
oguryo
K
ingdom
i
n
A
D
3
72
a
nd
i
n
t
he
S
illa
K
ingdom
i
n
A
D
5
28,
r
espectively,
c
hanged

p
eople
o
f
t
he
u
nied
S
illa
K
ingdom
o
f
K
orea
d
uring
t
he
K
oryo
d
ynasty
(
AD
9
18–1392)
w
ere

b
lend
o
f
C
onfucianism,
T
aoism,
a
nd
B
uddhism
(
Hinnells
1
997).
C
onfucianism
u
nderlines
t
he
m
orality
a
nd
b
ehavior
o
f

s
ick
a
nd
i
s
a

b
asis
f
or
r
egulating
f
estivals.
T
hough
C
onfucianism
a
nd
T
aoism
d
o
n
ot
p
rovide

Lu
nar
N
ew
Y
ear
(
festival
o
f
s
pring)
i
s
c
elebrated
b
y
a

b
ig
g
ath-
ering

o
f
f
amily

b
y
o
ffering
s
ets
o
f
c
hopsticks,
c
ooked
r
ice
i
n
b
owls,
a
lcoholic
d
rinks,
a
nd
t
ea,
w
hich
a
re

c
ulture.
S
hintoism
i
s
t
he
r
eligion
o
f
e
arly
J
apan
a
nd
i
s
s
till
i
n
p
ractice
t
oday,
a


s
till
m
ain-
tain

t
wo
a
ltars,
a

k
ami
(
ancestor)
a
ltar
f
or
l
ife
a
nd
i
ts
a
ctivities,
a
nd

a
nd
s
aké
b
y
t
he
J
apanese for a good beginning of the day.
1.1.3  Christian Foods
Certain foods are symbolically used at the Eucharist or communion by Christians.
A

w
afer
o
r
b
read
i
s
p
laced
o
n
t
he
t
ongue

H
is
b
lood
(
Hinnells
1
997).
T
he
ap
ostle
P
aul
i
s
c
redited
w
ith
f
reeing
C
hristian
l
aws
f
rom
t
he

n
ew
C
hristian
r
eligion
f
rom
J
ewish
o
rigins.
I
n
f
act,
t
he
s
ymbolic
d
rinking
o
f
w
ine
a
s
a


b
lood,
w
hich
w
as
p
roscribed
i
n
t
he
J
ewish
d
ietary
l
aws.
P
aska
i
s
a

s
pecial
E
aster
b
read

f
act
t
hat
J
esus
w
as
c
rucied
d
uring
t
he
J
ewish
P
assover.
P
aska
i
s
a

s
weet,
y
east-leavened
b
read

e
xodus
f
rom
E
gypt
(
Hinnells
1
997).
I
n
E
astern
E
urope,
w
omen
b
ring
t
heir
b
askets
c
ontaining
f
oods
t
o

b
e
s
ymbolic
o
f
t
he
R
esurrection
o
f
C
hrist,
a
nd
a
re
u
sually
4 Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World
decorated and featured by Christians throughout North America and Northern Europe
(
McWilliams
2
007).
I
n
C
hristian

p
rayers.
V
arieties
o
f
e
thnic
f
oods
s
uch
a
s
l
oaf,
c
heese,
a
nd
s
ausage
c
onstitute
t
he
c
ultural
f
oods

a
voiding
e
ating
s
wine,
t
he

esh
o
f
c
arrion
(
dead
a
nimals),
b
lood
i
n
a
ny
f
orm,
f
ood
p
reviously

a
re
p
repared
a
ccordingly
w
ithout
a
ny
a
lcoholic
b
everages.
T
raditionally,
M
uslim
w
omen
a
nd
c
hildren
m
ay
e
at
s
eparately

a
nd
r
elatives
s
hare
c
om-
mon

m
eals
a
fter
s
unset.
I
n
S
udan,
t
raditionally
a
t
t
he
t
ime
o
f

l
eavened
b
read
i
n
a

g
lass
o
f
w
ater
(
Bärwald
1
994).
T
he
d
rink
i
s
f
reshly
p
repared
a
nd

t
he
p
roduct nonalcoholic, which is permitted during Ramadan (Agab 1985).
1.2 World Dietary Culture
World dietary culture has three distinct traditional food habits based on staple cereal
d
iets:
(
1)
c
ooked-rice
e
aters
o
f
E
astern
f
ood
c
ulture,
(
2)
w
heat/barley-based
b
reads/
loaves
o

ood
c
ulture.
R
ice
i
s
a s
taple
f
ood
f
or
m
illions
o
f
p
eople
i
n
C
hina,
J
apan,
K
orea,
T
aiwan,
P

nd
S
ri
L
anka;
w
hereas
w
heat
o
r
b
arley
i
s
a s
taple
f
ood
i
n
n
orth
a
nd
w
est
I
ndia,
P

aize,
m
illets,
a
nd
ca
ssava
a
re
t
he
s
taple
c
rops
o
f
A
frica,
m
aize
i
s
t
he
s
taple
f
ood
i

ide
d
ishes
c
ontaining
f
ermented
a
nd
n
onfermented
s
oy-
bean
p
roducts,
v
egetables,
p
ickles,

sh,
me
at,
a
nd
a
lcoholic
b
everages.

b
y
m
ilk
a
nd
f
ermented
m
ilks
(
cheese,
y
oghurt,
c
urd),
me
at
a
nd
me
at
p
roducts
(
sausages,
h
ams),
a
nd

roducts,
w
ild
l
egume
s
eeds,
t
ubers,
me
at,
m
ilk
p
roducts,
a
nd
a
lcoholic
b
everages.
T
he
S
outh
A
merican
d
ietary
c

urope,
A
merica,
a
nd
A
ustralia,
f
ruits,
m
ostly
g
rapes,
a
re
f
ermented
i
nto
w
ine,
w
hereas
i
n
A
sia
a
nd
A

oth
r
ice
a
nd
w
heat
o
r
b
arley
o
r
m
aize
a
s
t
he
s
taple
f
ood
a
long
w
ith
v
arieties
o

ev-
erages,
a
nd
w
ild
e
dible
p
lants
(
Tamang
2
010).
D
rinking
a
nimal
m
ilk
i
s
n
ot
p
art
o
f
Dietary Cultures and Antiquity ofFermented Foods and Beverages 5
the

c
ows
i
n
t
heir
r
egions,
w
hereas,
t
he
I
ndians,
E
uropeans,
S
emites,
a
nd
t
he
n
omadic
t
ribesmen
o
f
N
orth

lled
a
s
t
he
“
cow
o
f
C
hina”
(
Hymowitz
1
970),
i
s
p
rocessed
t
o
m
ake
s
oy
m
ilk,
t
ofu
(

atto,
k
inema,
t
hua nau,
d
ouchi,
c
hungkokjang,
te
mpe,
a
nd
s
ufu.
T
he
H
imalayan
d
ietary
c
ulture
i
s
a f
usion
o
f
t

n
e
thnical
a
nd
s
ensory
p
refer-
ences
o
ver
a p
eriod
o
f
t
ime
(
Tamang
2
010).
C
ountries
b
ordering
o
ther
c
ountries

i
s
s
picy,
a
nd
s
alt
i
s
a
dded
d
irectly
w
hile
c
ooking;
s
easonings
s
uch
a
s
s
oy
s
auce
a
nd

u
se
s
oy
s
auce
f
or
s
easoning
a
nd
ot
her
t
aste
en
hanc-
ers

s
uch
a
s
M
SG.
E
uropean
a
nd

w
idely
u
sed
a
s
a

c
ondiment,
w
hile
p
ickled
v
egetables
s
uch
a
s
c
ucumbers
a
nd
o
nions,
a
nd
r
elishes

h
ot.
E
astern
f
oods
a
re
m
ore
s
alty,
s
picy,
a
nd
h
otter
t
han
W
estern
f
oods,
w
hich
a
re
l
ess

istory
o
f
d
ietary
c
ultures.
T
he
t
hree
ma
jor
m
ethods
o
f
e
ating
f
oods
a
re
u
sing
h
ands/ngers,
c
hopsticks,
a

f
H
indu
a
nd
M
uslim
d
ietary
c
ultures,
a
nd
i
s
a
lso
p
racticed
b
y
m
any
B
uddhists
o
f
S
outheast
A

se
h
ands
f
or
e
ating.
T
he
p
ractice
o
f
w
ashing
h
ands
a
nd
m
ouths
b
efore
a
nd
a
fter
e
ating
m

nd
p
arcel
o
f
d
ietary
r
ules
a
nd
e
tiquette
o
f
t
he
H
indus.
E
ating
f
oods
w
ith
h
ands
h
as
b

973).
T
here
i
s
n
o
m
ention
o
f
u
se
o
f
c
utlery
o
r
c
hopsticks
i
n
t
he
a
ncient
d
ietary culture of the Hindus. Traditionally, Africans also use hands for eating.
1.2.2  Use of Chopsticks

een
r
ecorded,
a
rchaeological
e
vidence
o
f
c
hopsticks
u
nearthed
a
t
Y
in
X
u,
t
he
c
apital
o
f
C
hina’s
S
hang
d

008).
B
esides
t
heir
u
se
a
s
f
eeding
t
ools,
c
hopsticks
w
ere
a
lso
u
sed
a
s
a

t
ool
i
n
r

se
o
f
c
hopsticks
a
s
a

m
ore
h
ygienic
w
ay
o
f
e
ating
a
nd
a

c
onve-
nient

w
ay
o

s
d
escribed
i
n
t
he
C
lassic of Rites,
o
ne
o
f
t
he

ve
c
lassics
6 Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World
in the Confucian canon, that mentions the social forms, ancient rituals, and court
ceremonies of the Zhou dynasty (1122–256 BC) (Warrant and Honten 2008). In the
beginning, chopsticks were used by royal and aristocratic families during feasts, until
around 100 BC during the Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 9) when chopsticks were used
by commoners, and has remained a part of the food culture of many Orientals.
1.2.3  Use of Cutlery
One attribute of Western cultural cuisine is the use of cutlery to cut food on the plate
and to transfer food from the plate to the mouth (Young 1999). This culture has diversi-
ed over time so that the manipulation of knives and forks differs in Europe and the
United States (Childe 1956:113). The English word “cutlery” is derived from “cutler,” a

Dietary culture has evolved as a result of traditional knowledge and experiences of
generations over time. Cuisine is based on a wide range of factors, including environ-
ment, availability of edible substrates, sensory properties, ethnic preferences, custom-
ary beliefs, religions, socioeconomy, regional politics, cultural practices, and dietary
Dietary Cultures and Antiquity ofFermented Foods and Beverages 7
laws. Though the food cultures of the Western and the Eastern worlds are not parallel,
f
requent
m
ovement
a
s
w
ell
a
s
m
igration
o
f
p
eople
c
arrying
t
heir
d
ietary
c
ultures

t
he
s
ame
o
r
d
ifferent
c
ountries
m
ight
h
ave
i
nuenced
t
he
s
ettlers,
a
nd
t
hus
r
esulted
i
n
t
he

p
eople
i
s
b
eing
l
ost
d
ue
t
o
c
hanges
i
n
c
limate,
g
lobal
e
conomy,
t
he
p
rocess
o
f
r
apid

T
oday,
t
here
i
s
a

r
apid
t
ransforma-
tion
in food habits due to health consciousness and also due to rising prices.
1.3 Antiquity and Cultural Aspects
Dietary culture carries the cultural history of ethnic communities (Tamang 2001a).
T
raditional
f
ermentation,
s
moking,
d
rying,
a
nd
s
alting
p
rocesses

v
alue,
a r
emarkable
s
tep
i
n
t
he
f
ood
cu
lture
h
istory
o
f
h
uman
b
eings.
F
ermented
f
oods
a
nd
b
everages

cu
ltural
p
ractices
i
n
m
any
p
arts
o
f
t
he
w
orld
c
an
b
e
r
ich
a
nd
d
etailed.
D
ocumentary
s
ources

t
imes
i
s
e
ven
m
ore
f
ragmentary.
A
rchaeology
i
s
o
ur
o
nly
s
ource
o
f
i
nformation,
a
nd
m
any
a
reas

m
aterial
a
rtifacts.
M
aterials
i
mper-
vious

t
o
d
ecay,
s
uch
a
s
p
ottery
f
ragments,
s
tone
t
ools,
a
nd
s
tone

t
ransient
a
nd
e
phemeral
i
n
n
ature.
D
espite
t
his,
a
ncient
r
emains
o
f
f
ood
i
ngredients
a
re
o
ften
p
reserved

p
rocesses
t
hat
r
ender
t
hem
r
esistant
t
o
d
ecay.
A
rchaeobotany,
t
he
s
tudy
o
f
a
ncient
m
acroremains
s
uch
a
s


re
i
s
i
nert
t
o
b
iological
p
rocesses.
W
hen
a
ncient
c
ooking
m
ethods
e
xposed
d
ense
f
ood
i
tems
t
o

a
rchaeologi-
cally.

W
here
a
rchaeological
r
esearch
h
as
i
ncorporated
t
he
s
tudy
o
f
a
ncient
p
lant
a
nd
a
nimal
r
emains,

a
nalysis
o
f
p
repared
f
oods.
E
ven
h
ere,
i
mproved
a
wareness
a
nd
t
he
d
evelopment
o
f
n
ew
t
echniques
h
ave

s
everal
h
is-
torians

s
ince
4
000
B
C
b
ased
o
n
h
istorical
e
vidence
(
Lee
1
984,
Y
oon
1
993,
H
uang

a
nd
a
rchaeological
e
vidence
(
Yegna
N
arayan
A
iyar
1
953,
P
rajapati
a
nd
N
air
2
003).
T
he
a
ncient
h
istorical
m
onuments

m
ore
t
han
2
500
y
ears
(
Tamang
2
010).
A
ncient
C
hinese
b
ooks
s
uch
a
s
J
eijeon
w
ritten
b
y
Y
angseu

6
68),
d
eveloped
v
arious
f
ermented
f
oods
s
uch
a
s
f
ermented
s
oybeans, vegetables, sh, and alcoholic beverages (Kim 1997).
8 Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World
In
t
he
a
ncient
N
ear
E
ast,
t
he

c
an
b
e
g
leaned
f
rom
w
rit-
ten

r
ecords.
I
n
s
ome
c
ases,
a
rchaeology
i
s
a
ble
t
o
p
rovide

w
ith
t
he
R
omans.
A
s
a

r
esult,
w
riters
s
uch
a
s
P
liny
c
an
b
e
h
eavily
a
nd
p
erhaps

t
he
R
oman
w
orld.
P
ast
f
ood
c
ultural
p
ractices
i
n
r
egions
s
uch
a
s
A
frica
a
nd
S
outh
A
merica

t
raditions
w
ere
r
ecorded
f
rom
t
he
e
ighth
c
en-
tury

o
nward
b
y
A
rab
t
ravelers,
w
hen
f
ermented
f
oods

(
Odunfa
1
988).
T
hese
r
egions
r
etain
a

r
ich
t
raditional
c
uisine
u
p
t
o
t
he
p
resent
d
ay,
p
articularly

h
ave
a
lways
b
een.
T
he
r
ich
d
ietary
c
ulture
a
nd
t
he
h
istory
o
f
d
iverse
e
thnic,
f
ermented
f
oods

i
nformation
w
as
u
nknown
t
o
r
est
o
f
t
he
w
orld.
T
he
n
ative
s
kills
o
f
f
ood
f
ermentation
h
ave

e
lders;
w
hich
i
nclude
g
randmothers/grandfathers,
m
others/fathers,
a
nd
v
illage
e
lders;
s
elf
p
ractice,
f
amily;
c
ommunity;
a
nd
n
eighbors.
A
lthough

t
raditional
c
ultural
a
spects
o
f
e
thnic, fermented foods and beverages.
1.3.1  Fermented Vegetables
Traditional techniques of fermentation or pickling vegetables seem to have developed
i
ndependently,
f
or
e
xample,
i
n
A
sia
(
Pederson
1
979),
t
he
M
editerranean

E
uropean
f
ood-
stuff

m
ade
f
rom
d
ry,
s
alted
c
abbage.
T
he
p
rocess
e
volved
o
ver
t
ime,
a
nd
w
as

a

G
erman
w
ord
m
eaning
s
our
c
abbage,
w
hich
i
s
g
enerally
p
repared
f
rom
s
hred-
ded

w
hite
c
abbage

o
r
t
he
f
ermentation
t
emperature
i
s
h
igher
t
han
u
sual
(
Pederson
a
nd
A
lbury
1
969).
A
lthough
s
auerkraut
f
ermentation

t
his
m
ethod
o
f
p
reserving
v
egetables
o
riginated
i
n
C
hina
a
nd
w
as
b
rought
i
nto
E
astern Europe by the Tartars (Toomre 1992).
The


rst

L
e Tresor de santi
(
1607),
w
hich
d
escribes
i
t
a
s
a

G
erman
p
roduct
(
Davidson
1
999).
S
auerkraut
w
as
t
raditionally
v
ery

v
egetables,
t
his
f
ermentation
t
echnique
w
as
i
mportant
a
s
i
t
p
rovided
a
n
i
ntense

avor
t
o
a

l
argely

i
n
b
arrels.
T
he

avor
c
ould
b
e
v
aried
t
hrough
v
arious
a
ddi-
tives.

F
or
e
xample,
ot
herwise
i
nedible

l
ayered
w
ith
t
he
c
abbage.
E
ven
o
ak
o
r
c
herry
l
eaves
w
ere
s
ometimes
u
sed.
O
ther
v
egetables
a
re

w
ere
Dietary Cultures and Antiquity ofFermented Foods and Beverages 9
very
c
ommonly
p
ickled
a
nd
w
ere
e
steemed
i
n
P
oland.
I
n
p
ast
c
enturies,
b
arrelsful
w
ere
p
repared

n
ative
t
o
t
he
e
astern
M
editerranean.
T
he
p
recise
d
ate
a
nd
p
lace
o
f
o
live
d
omestication
i
s
u
nknown,

o
live
u
se.
T
he
b
eginnings
o
f
o
live
f
ruit
p
reservation
a
re
u
nknown,
a
nd
m
ay
b
e
d
ifcult
t
o

a
nd
ot
her
R
oman
au
thors
(
Sealey
a
nd
T
yers
1
989).
T
hat
o
lives
w
ere
w
idely
t
raded
i
s
a
ttested

a
nd,
u
nusually,
f
rom
a

R
oman-period
S
panish
j
ar
d
ated
b
etween
A
D
5
0
a
nd
1
50
d
redged
u
p

f
ruits
a
re
p
reserved
b
y
f
ermentation,
b
ut
o
lives
r
equire
s
ome
f
orm
o
f
p
rocessing
b
ecause the bitter glucoside, oleuropein, renders the raw fruit inedible.
In

S
pain,

e
ach
r
egion
(
March
a
nd
R
ios
1
988).
T
his
t
raditional
k
nowl-
edge

i
ncludes
s
easoning
i
ngredients,
p
recise
t
imings

T
he
o
ptimum
s
alt
c
oncentration
i
s
d
etermined
b
y
d
issolving
c
oarse
s
alt
i
n
w
ater
a
nd
p
lacing
a
n

c
oncentration
i
s
c
orrect.
D
uring
t
he
t
ime
t
he
o
lives
a
re
f
ermented
i
n
t
he
b
rine,

avoring
a
gents

T
he
o
lives
m
ay
b
e
r
eady
i
n
a
s
l
ittle
a
s
1
0
d
ays
o
r
t
ake
a
s
l
ong

r
ural
a
reas
a
re
o
ffered
t
o
g
uests upon their arrival.
In

C
hina,
t
he
l
aborers
en
gaged
i
n
t
he
c
onstruction
o
f

o
f
t
he
m
ost
i
mportant
e
arly
s
ources
o
f
i
nformation
a
bout
a
ncient
C
hinese
a
griculture
a
nd
c
ook-
ing


w
as
w
ritten
b
etween
A
D
5
33
a
nd
54
4
b
y
C
hia
S
su-Hsieh,
a

m
iddle-ranking
o
fcial
i
n
n
orthern

T
his
t
ext
d
etails
i
ngredients
a
nd
p
rovides
4
1
r
ecipes
f
or
t
he
p
reparation
o
f
v
egetables
p
ickled
i
n

c
abbage,
m
allow,
a
nd
m
ustard
g
reens.
S
ome
f
ruits
w
ere
a
lso
p
ickled,
s
uch
a
s
m
elons
a
nd
p
ears.

a
nd
p
reserved
v
egetables
h
ave
b
een
c
onsumed
i
n
K
orea
s
ince
2
000
y
ears
(
Kim
1
997).
T
he
a
ntiquity

w
ord
k
imchi
o
riginated
f
rom
c
himchae,
m
eaning
p
ickled
v
egetables
w
ith
s
alt
i
n
C
hinese
(
Park
a
nd
R
hee

t
hat
f
ermented
v
egetables
w
ere
p
repared
u
sing
s
tone
p
ickle
j
ars
i
n
t
he
B
upju
t
emple
a
t
M
t.

f
rom
t
urnip
b
y
a
dding
s
alt
w
as
f
ound
i
n
a
n
a
ncient
K
orean
h
istorical
d
ocu-
ment,

D
ongkukisangkukjip,

a
nd
t
angerine
p
eels
d
uring
t
he
p
repa-
ration

o
f
k
imchi
i
s
m
entioned
i
n
t
his
h
istorical
d
ocument.

ing
m
ethods
o
f
s
even
t
ypes
o
f
v
egetable
p
ickles.
T
he
m
ost
i
mportant
c
lassic
l
iterature
c
oncerning
k
imchi
p

etail
t
he
p
rocessing
m
eth-
ods

o
f
t
hree
t
ypes
o
f
k
imchi
i
ncluding
s
ukbakji.
B
aechu
(
Chinese
c
abbage)
a

ynasty.
J
ibongyusol
(
AD
1
613)
s
howed
t
he

rst
r
ecords
o
f
r
ed
p
eppers,
a
nd
t
heir
u
se
i
n
k

o
K
orea
i
n
t
he
A
D
s
eventeenth
c
entury
w
hen
t
he
s
alt
s
tocks
w
ere
i
n
s
hort
s
upply
(

armonious
t
aste,
g
ood
c
olor,
a
nd
a
ntimicrobial
a
ctivity
(
Cheigh
a
nd
P
ark
1
994).
K
oreans
b
elieve
t
hat
r
ed
c

nd
K
won
2
005).
R
adish
a
nd
c
ucumber
w
ere
t
he
m
ost
i
mportant
i
ngredients
f
or
k
imchi
m
aking
u
ntil
t

imchi
v
arieties
i
ncreased
r
emarkably
f
rom
1
1
t
o
3
6,
i
n
t
he
c
ourse
o
f
i
ts
2
00
y
ear
e

ariety,
f
ollowed
b
y
k
kakdugi
a
nd
d
ongchimi kimchi,
m
ade
f
rom
r
adish
(
Yu
a
nd
C
hung
1
974,
P
ark
a
nd
R

s
g
undruk,
s
inki,
a
nd
g
oyang
h
ave
c
ultural
s
ignicance
f
or
N
epalis.
A
n
o
ral
h
istory
o
n
t
he
i

epal,
f
armers
w
ere
f
orced
t
o

ee
v
illages
d
ue
t
o
w
ar,
l
eaving
t
heir
a
gricultural
l
ands
c
ultivated
w

hought
o
f
p
reserving
f
ood
s
tocks
f
or
h
is
s
oldiers
a
nd
f
armers
o
n
r
eturn
a
nd
o
f
d
epriv-
ing

proot
r
adish
c
rop
f
rom
t
he

elds
a
nd
d
irected
t
hem
t
o
d
ig
p
its,
m
ake
b
eds
o
f
h

nd
m
ud.
T
he
f
armers
a
nd
s
oldiers
d
ug
t
he
p
its
a
nd
b
uried
a
ll
t
he
a
gricultural
p
roducts
i

ing
a
nd
h
is
s
ubjects
r
eturned
t
o
t
heir
h
omes
a
fter
a

f
ew
m
onths,
a
nd
d
ug
o
ut
t

hile
t
he
r
adish
a
nd
l
eafy
v
egetables
h
ad
d
eveloped
a

a
cidic
a
nd
s
our
t
aste,
w
hich
w
as
d

he
p
its,
l
ay
o
n
t
he

elds
i
n
t
he
o
pen.
S
omehow
a
fter
a

f
ew
d
ays,
t
he
f

aste
a
nd

avor
a
nd
t
ermed
t
hese
p
roducts
a
s
g
undruk
(
leafy
v
egetables)
a
nd
s
inki
(
radish
t
ap
r

undruk
m
ight
h
ave
o
riginated
f
rom
t
he
N
ewar
(
one
o
f
t
he
m
ajor
e
thnic
g
roups
o
f
N
epal)
w

or
t
he
a
cidica-
tion

a
nd
p
reservation
o
f
p
erishable
v
egetables
i
s
u
nique
t
o
t
he
H
imalayas.
U
nlike
t

erman
s
auerkraut,
g
undruk
a
nd
s
inki
a
re
d
ried
a
cidied
p
roducts.
F
resh,
w
et
f
ermented
v
egetables
a
re
r
arely
o

raditional
p
reservation
m
ethod
b
y
w
hich
t
he
s
helf
l
ife
o
f
t
he
p
roducts
i
s
p
rolonged.
D
ry,
f
ermented
v

he
d
ifcult
t
errains
o
f
t
he
H
imalayas.
T
he
m
ountain
p
eople
o
f
N
epal
m
ight
h
ave
i
ncluded
t
he
e

o
t
hat
t
hey
c
ould
f
eed
t
hemselves
d
uring
t
he
s
carcity of vegetables during long monsoons (rainy season) in the Himalayas.
Pickled
v
egetables
a
re
a
lso
c
onsumed
i
n
o
ther

a
nd
b
amboo
s
hoots,
a
s
w
ell
a
s
u
nripe
f
ruits
i
ncluding
m
angoes,
p
apaya,
a
nd
l
ime
(
Merican
1
983).

i
s
a
djusted
i
n
t
he
s
ame
w
ay
a
s
t
he
b
rine
m
ade
f
or
o
live
m
aking
i
n
S
pain:

i
n
E
gypt,
w
here
l
arge
a
mounts
o
f
p
ickled
c
arrots,
c
ucumber,
t
urnips,
c
auliowers,
a
nd
o
ther
v
egetables
a
re

c
ountries
w
as
i
mported
f
rom
e
arlier
t
imes.
T
he
A
frican
p
ractice
o
f
p
ickling
s
eeds
i
s
l
ikely
a
n

o
il
b
ean
(P
entacletha macrophylla),
a
nd
t
he
p
oi-
sonous
c
astor
o
il
s
eed
(R
icinus communis)
(
Odunfa
1
985).
T
he
l
atter
l

f
S
udan,
o
ften
a
s
a
ccompaniments,
f
amine
f
oods,
o
r
a
s
m
eat
s
ubsti-
tutes
f
or
t
he
v
ery
p
oor

f
rom
a
ncient
t
imes
a
s
g
ood
ap
petizers,
a
nd
p
eople
u
se
t
hese
f
oods
a
s
a

r
emedy
f
or

i
s
e
aten
o
n
e
very
s
ocial
a
nd
r
eligious
o
ccasion
b
y
K
oreans,
w
hich
s
ig-
nies

i
ts
i
mportance

a

s
ide
d
ish,
a
nd
i
s
c
onsumed
o
n
a
ll
s
ocial
o
ccasions
a
s
a

c
ultural
f
ood.
S
everal

p
eople
s
uch
a
s
t
he
M
eitis
o
f
M
anipur,
t
he
N
agas
o
f
N
agland,
t
he
A
patanis
o
f
A
runachal

d
ynasty
(
ca.
1
700–1100
B
C),
o
r
p
er-
haps

e
arlier
(
Singh
a
nd
H
ymowitz
1
999).
T
his
a
rea
i
s

t
he
p
rimary
g
ene
p
ool
t
o
c
entral
a
nd
s
outh
C
hina
a
nd
p
eninsular
K
orea
p
erhaps
t
ook
p
lace

t
he
A
D

rst
c
entury.
S
oybean
t
hen
s
pread
t
o
J
apan,
a
nd
t
hroughout
S
outheast
A
sia
a
nd
n
orthern

w
hich
c
reated
a

s
econdary
c
enter
o
f
d
iversication
f
or
s
oybeans
(
Hymowitz
1
990).
T
he
t
ransformation
o
f
s
oybean

c
ountries
a
nd
t
he
r
apid
a
cceptance
o
f
s
oybeans
a
s
a

c
ultural
f
ood
b
y
n
on-Chinese
c
ommunities.
N
ew

hi)
a
nd
j
iang
(c
hiang),
t
he
t
wo
ma
jor
t
ypes
o
f
f
ermented
p
rotein-
based
f
oods,
h
ave
b
een
p
opular

j
iang
r
efers
t
o
p
roteinaceous
p
lant
o
r
a
nimal
f
oods
m
ixed
w
ith
m
old-cultured
c
ereals
o
r
c
hu
a
nd

w
hich
w
as
n
ext
t
o
s
alt
u
se
i
n
C
hina
a
nd
w
hich
w
as
m
entioned
i
n
a
n
a
ncient

1
986).
T
he
p
reparation
o
f
3

d
ifferent
t
ypes
o
f
c
hi
a
nd
1
4
j
iang
r
ecipes
i
s
d
escribed

s
auce
i
s
a
n
i
ntegral
p
art
o
f
C
hinese
c
ooking,
b
ut
i
t
w
as
n
ot
a
n
a
ncient
a
nd

o
f
c
ulinary
i
mportance
u
ntil
t
he
S
ung
d
ynasty
(
960–1279) (Sabban 1988).
Although

J
apanese
c
uisine
w
as
h
eavily
i
nuenced
b
y

a
nd
m
eat
(h
ishio)
w
as
p
robably
a
n
e
arlier,
i
ndependent
J
apanese
d
evelopment
(
Huang
2
000).
T
he
T
aiho
L
aws

s
oybean
f
oods
i
ncluding
d
ouchi,
m
iso,
a
nd
j
iang
o
r
h
ishio
(
Yokotsuka
1
991b).
A
ccording
t
o
t
he
b
ook

t
he
m
onthly
a
llowance
s
up-
plied

t
o
g
overnment
o
fcials
a
long
w
ith
r
ice,
s
oybeans,
a
nd
r
ed
b
eans,

b
y
d
ifferent
n
ames
s
uch
a
s
h
ama-natto
a
nd
d
aitokuji-natto;
i
n
T
aiwan
i
t
i
s
k
nown
a
s
i
n-si (Yokotsuka 1991b).

d
ouchi
o
r
t
au-shi,
o
ne
o
f
t
he
o
ldest
e
thnic,
f
ermented
s
oybean
f
oods
o
f
C
hina
d
uring
t
he

a
nd
c
onsumption
o
f
d
ouchi
e
xpanded
n
orthward
t
o
n
orth-
ern

C
hina,
w
estward
t
o
e
astern
N
epal,
s
outhward

i
nto
v
arious
f
ood
p
roducts
m
ight
h
ave
o
riginated
o
nly
a
fter
e
leventh
c
entury
B
C.
N
atto,
a

f
ermented,

p
roduction
o
f
s
hoyu
a
nd
m
iso
i
n
C
hina
w
as
r
ecorded
a
round
1
000
B
C,
w
ith
t
he
t
ransfer

s
cript
c
ombination
u
sed
f
or
t
he
w
ord
s
hoyu
(
soy
s
auce)
i
s
s
aid
t
o
h
ave

rst
ap
peared

u
sing
s
oybeans
a
nd
w
heat
w
as
i
ntroduced
o
nly
d
uring
t
he
E
do
p
eriod
(
AD
1
603–1867)
(
Hamamo
2
001).

d
uring
t
he
r
apid
e
xpansion
o
f
t
rade
a
nd
a
lso
b
y
t
he
m
igration
o
f
p
eople
f
rom
m
ainland

A
D
1
815),
w
hich
i
ndicated
t
hat
t
empe
h
ad
b
een
p
roduced
i
n
e
arly
s
eventeenth
c
entury
i
n
I
ndonesia

e
ast
N
epal
a
round
6
00
B
C–AD
1
00
d
uring
t
he
K
irat
d
ynasty
(
Tamang
2
001b).
T
he
w
ord
k
inema

m
eaning
“
fermented”
a
nd namba meaning “avor” (Tamang 2010).
The

p
lasmid
f
rom
t
he
B
acillus subtilis
(n
atto)
s
train
r
esembles
t
hat
o
f
B
. subtilis
i
solated

a
mong
s
trains
o
f
B
. subtilis
i
solated
f
rom
c
ommon
s
ticky,
f
er-
mented

s
oybean
f
oods
o
f
A
sia
(k
inema,

o
f
f
ermented
s
oybeans
(
Tamang
e
t
a
l.
2
002).
I
f
h
ypothetical
l
ines
a
re
d
rawn
o
n
a

m
ap,

t
ouch-
ing

K
orea
(c
hungkokjang);
S
outh
C
hina
(d
ouchi);
e
astern
N
epal,
D
arjeeling
h
ills,
S
ikkim,
a
nd
S
outh
B
hutan

(s
ieng).
T
amang
(
2010)
c
alls
t
his
h
ypothetical
t
riangle
a
s
t
he
“k
inema-natto-thua nao
t
riangle”
(
KNT
t
riangle)
b
ased
o
n

K
NT-triangle-bound
c
ountries,
a

v
ariety
o
f
B
acillus-fermented
s
ticky
a
nd
n
onsalty
s
oybean
f
oods
a
re
c
onsumed
b
y
t
he

N
ortheast
I
ndia
a
nd
t
he
D
arjeeling
h
ills
i
n
I
ndia,
B
hutan,
a
nd
e
ast
N
epal).
T
he
p
roposed
K
NT

a
n
a
ccidental
d
iscovery.
C
ooked
s
oybeans
c
ould
h
ave
b
een
l
eftover
a
fter
a

m
eal
a
nd
t
he
n
ext

P
eople
m
ight
h
ave
t
asted
t
his
p
roduct
a
nd
s
tarted
l
iking
i
ts

avor
a
nd
s
ticky
t
exture,
a
nd

p
eriod
o
f
t
ime,
d
epending
o
n
c
onsumers’
p
references.
I
t
h
as
b
een
o
bserved
t
hat
m
ildly
a
lkaline

avored

t
o
d
evelopment
o
f
a

t
ypical

avor
c
alled
u
mami
(
Kawamura
a
nd
K
ara
1
987)
d
uring
t
he
p
roteolysis

p
roduct.
U
mami-avored
p
roducts
a
re
p
opular
w
ith
t
he
M
ongolian
r
aces
a
ll
o
ver
t
he
w
orld.
N
on-Mongoloid-origin
I
ndians

a
cceptance
o
f
c
onsuming
a
nimal
m
ilk.
D
ue
t
o
t
he
p
ractice
o
f
u
sing
s
alt
a
nd
s
pices
w
hile

p
repared
a
nd
c
onsumed
e
xclusively
b
y
t
he
M
ongolian
r
aces
m
ainly
i
n
S
outh,
N
orth,
a
nd
E
ast
A
sia.

i
ru
o
r
s
umbara
i
s
p
repared
f
rom
w
ild
l
ocust
b
ean,
a
nd
i
s
t
he
m
ost
i
mportant
c
ondiment

o
f
p
rotein,
e
spe-
cially

f
or
p
oor
f
amilies
w
ho
c
an
a
fford
l
ittle
m
eat
(
Odunfa
1
988).
T
empe

B
read
i
s
a
n
i
mportant
p
art
o
f
t
he
d
iet
i
n
m
any
ot
her
c
ultures.
A
lthough
b
read
c
an

o
f
b
read
a
re
l
eavened
w
ith
y
east
o
r
l
actobacilli
(
sourdough).
I
n
m
odern
t
imes,
g
luten-rich
g
rains
(
bread

T
he

rst
c
ereal
d
omesticates,
b
arley
(H
ordeum vulgare),
e
inkorn
(T
. mono-
coccum),

a
nd
e
specially
e
mmer
w
heat
(T
. dicoccum),
w
ere

o
f
b
read
i
n
t
he
B
ible
i
s
o
ne
i
ndication
o
f
t
he
a
ntiquity
o
f
b
aking,
b
ut
b
read

r
ation
l
ists
a
nd
o
fferings
t
o
d
eities
i
n
s
urviving
d
ocuments
f
rom
a
ncient
M
esopotamia
a
nd
E
gypt.
T
here

a
risen
a
fter
t
he
d
omestication
o
f
c
ereals,
a
bout
1
0,000
y
ears
a
go,
b
ecause
b
read
m
ak-
ing

r
equires

b
read
f
rom
a

v
ariety
o
f
s
tarch-rich
s
ources,
a
kin
t
o
t
he
c
ycad
“
loaves”
o
f
t
he
G
idjingalis

a
rtifacts
a
ssociated
w
ith
c
ereal
p
rocessing
h
ave
b
een
r
ecovered
f
rom
a
rchaeological
s
ites
(
Curtis
2
001),
t
he
m
ost

a
re
e
xtremely
r
are,
b
ut
h
ave
b
een
f
ound
i
n
E
uropean
a
rchaeological
d
eposits.
F
inds
f
rom
s
uch
d
iverse

a
nd
m
edieval
(
Viking)
S
wedish
g
raves
a
re
s
ummarized
i
n
S
amuel
(
2002),
a
nd
m
any
ot
her
a
ncient
b
reads

b
ecause
t
heir
t
rue
n
ature
w
as
u
nrecognized
a
t
t
he
t
ime
o
f
e
xcavation.
D
ue
t
o
t
he
a
rid

e
xamples
o
f
d
esiccated
a
ncient
E
gyptian
b
read
l
oaves
r
ecovered
f
rom
t
ombs,
a
nd
t
hese
a
re
n
ow
i
n

S
wedish
b
read
f
ragment
w
as
s
hown
t
o
c
onsist
o
f

eld
p
ea
a
nd
S
cots
P
ine
(P
inus
sylvestris)


P
ine
i
nner
b
ark
a
s
a

b
read
i
ngredient
a
mong
t
he
M
edieval
V
ikings
w
as
l
ater
c
onrmed
b
y

t
he
m
agisterial
r
esearch
u
nder-
taken
by Währen (2000).
Ancient

E
gyptian
l
oaves
a
re
p
articularly
w
ell-suited
t
o
a
nalysis
a
nd
i
nvestiga-

a
n
a
ncient
l
oaf
i
ntegrated
a
rchaeological
e
vidence
f
or
b
aking
w
ith
m
odern
r
ural
E
gyptian
b
aking
t
echniques,
E
gyptian

1
932,
G
rüss
1
932).
M
ore
r
ecently,
S
amuel
h
as
u
ndertaken
a
n
e
xtensive
s
tudy
o
f
a
ncient
E
gyptian
b
aking,

o
f
a


sh,
t
o
d
omed
o
val
l
oaves
o
ver
2
0
c
m
i
n
l
ength
(
Sist
1
987,
F
ig.

w
ith
a

c
entral
c
rater
o
r
d
epression
i
n
t
he
c
enter,
p
erhaps
d
esigned
t
o
h
old
a

m
oist

l
oaves
a
re
m
illed
t
o
a

m
edium
c
onsistency,
i
n
w
hich
g
rain
f
ragments
o
f
b
etween
0
.5
a
nd

p
robably
d
eliberate
a
dditions,
m
uch
l
ike
t
he
m
odern
“
granary”
o
r
“
multigrain”
l
oaves of today with the addition of whole or cracked grains.