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INTRODUCTION
1. Reasons for Choosing this Research
It is the fact that Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation are special forms of diplomatic
relationship between China and its neighboring countries during the feudal time. Regarding to
their economic, military and cultural advance, Chinese dynasties considered themselves as
“Celestial Court, Superior Kingdom”, and giving themselves right to bestow titles for rulers
coming from smaller kingdoms. On the other hand, in order to be recognized as king and
maintain their stable and peaceful relationship with China, rulers of those principalities were
expected to pay tribute and ask for title from the “Heaven Dynasty”, most important among those
was to permanently send tribute. Conferring Titles and Tributary Relation gradually became the
typical form of the relationship between China and its neighbors in the medieval age. The
phenomenon originated from the time of xihan (西漢) and continuously developed and reached
its peak in the Ming dynasty (明，1368-1644).
Due to the impact of geopolitics, identical culture, consequences of more than one
thousand year-northern domination (Bac thuoc), and other various factors, Conferring Title and
Tribute Relation between China and Daiviet in general and Ming-Daiviet in particular stood
steadily as a typical phenomenon and became foundation for the two’s diplomatic interaction.
Research on Vietnamese-Chinese and Chinese-Vietnamese historical relationship has
long captured attention both domestic and foreign scholarship with much of significant
contribution. However, Conferring title and Tribute relationship between China and Vietnam in
the feudal age or among particular dynasties is still in the form of general survey in historical
works in Vietnam and China. This situation results in the fact that the topic yet plays a small part
among research on Vietnamese-Chinese relation. Regarding to the research of “Conferring title
and Tribute relationship between Ming and Dai Viet (1368-1644)”, the author aims to conduct a
systematic and professional study, with focus on a specific dynasty, the Ming and the historical
circumstance impacts on this relationship. This period is also reported of a steady and enduring
exchange between two kingdoms despite of sometimes antagonism and miscommunication, but
at the end of the days, such conflicts were negotiated successfully by both.
Concerning to some specific scholarship purposes, this dissertation sheds lights upon a
number of dominated issues: 1. the intellectual framework, interests, and historical framework of

tribute system: An interpretive essay” by Mark Mancall (1968); “The Chinese perception of world
order, past and present” by Benjamin I. Schwartz (1968); “China and the Chinese Overseas” by
Wang Gungwu (1991); “A short history of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and
Influence” by Martin Stuart – Fox (2003)
Those works make enormous contributions to depict the model of diplomatic relationship
between China and its neighbors during the medieval time such as Chinese conceptualization of
“World Order”, origin and function of the tribute system and the role it plays in associate with
trade exchange, those are the main concerns of the Ming toward Southeast Asia. Such discourses
are found useful and necessary for researching on Conferring title and Tribute relationship in
particular.
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Apart from above general surveys on tribute system and Ming-Southeast Asia interaction,
there are couple of monographs dealing with subject of Ming-Daiviet relation, namely:
“Vietnam, Ho Quy Ly and the Ming (1371 – 1421)” by John Whitmore (1981); “Early Ming
expansionism (1406-1427): China’s abortive conquest of Vietnam” by A. B. Woodside (1963);
“Beyond the Bronze Pillars: Envoy Poetry and the Sino – Vietnamese Relationship” by Liam C.
Kelley (2005); “Chinese gunpowder technology and Dai Viet: c.1390 – 1497” by Sun Laichen
(2006), “Asymmetry and China’s tributary system” by Brantly Womack (2012)
Most important research conducted by Chinese scholars also can be pointed out here,
such as “Conquest and Renouncement: A Study in Sino-Viet relationship in the Ming” by Trinh
Vinh Thuong (1998); “Tribute and Diplomatic relation: A Study in Sino-Viet relation in the late
Ming and Early Qing” by Nguu Quang Khai (2003); “Historical analysis on the tribute system: A
Study in paradigm of the Chinese diplomatic relation in the ancient time” by Ly Van Tuyen
(2004); “Research on the Ming and Annam relationship” by Tran Van Nguyen (2005)
History of Vietnam and China relationship also has been long concerned by Vietnamese
scholarship. Most recent studies in the topic are included: “Vietnamese-Sino relationship in the
fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries” by Ta Ngoc Lien (1995), “Daiviet’s Diplomacy” by Luu
Van Loi (2000); “Daiviet diplomacy during the Tran and Ho Dynasty” and “Daiviet Diplomacy
during the Le, Mac and Le Trung Hung dynasties” by Nguyen The Long (2005); ”On the
diplomatic struggle against the Ming in the early 15th century and remained texts” by Nguyen

diplomatic link between the Ming and Daiviet as well as some major characteristics of its
development.
This dissertation will rely mainly on Chinese and Vietnamese primary sources as well as
critically reviewing previous scholarship both in Vietnam and outside. It is hoped to shed lights
upon some of the above misleading and neglected issued.
3. The Scale of this Research
The main content of this dissertation focuses on the Conferring titles and tribute relation
between China and Vietnam during the time Ming dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644.
However, it also covers a number of political and military events involved with other
principalities which have direct impact on this interaction.
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On the timeframe, this survey concerning with events start from 1368 as the Ming was
established in China to its collapse in 1368. Despite of the Ming’s remain which still existed in
the Southern China for quite a long time after its defeat and continued some sort of interaction
with the Le dynasty, we are aware that since then, Chinese history have been significantly
changed and Sino-Vietnamese relationship turned into another chapter.
During the time China was run by the Ming, there were for sequent dynasties in Daiviet
(the Le dynasty was divided into two separated periods), therefore this dissertation makes a
chronological timeframe characterizes by shorter periods associated with Vietnamese dynasties.
Regarding to the term “Ming”: Ming presents here as a Chinese dynasty, also plays as
official title of the Chinese empire between 1368 and 1644. In this dissertation, the term is
flexibly used associated with the context of the text either dynasty or kingdom.
4. Purposes and Objectives of this Dissertation
4.1. Purpose
The purpose of this dissertation is to comprehensively and systematically recall
Conferring titles and tributary relationship between China and Daiviet during the Ming Dynasty
with all of its operation through different periods, shedding new lights upon reasons and factors
responsible for the maintenance and solidity of this relationship, and pointing out some
dominated features of this long-lasting interaction. By doing so, the author is in hope that this
dissertation can add more sources, gives new interpretations, and enforces new study in the field

presents diverse sources and highly valuable for any research on Conferring title and Tribute
relationship between Daiviet and Ming, as well as, playing as a good research tool for assessing
and comparing with Chinese sources on the same events and agendas. Coming across the
Complete History however, there are also quite a number of mistakes can be detected, such as
timeframe, different kind of tribute products and so on. In many case, the Complete History only
can provide with a general remark on the Ming’s return gifts to Daiviet. Thus, our usage of the
Complete History bases on comparing with other different sources to diversifying information
and enriching with more details.
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Apart from Mingshilu and Complete History, this dissertation makes used of abundant
materials namely Mingshi, Lich trieu hien chuong loai chi (A classified survey of the institutions
of successive courts), Kham Dinh Viet Su thong giam cuong muc (The Imperial/y Ordered Mirror
and Commentary on the History of the Viet), Le trieu hinh luat (Penal Code of the Le dynasty),
Dai Viet Thong Su (or Le trieu Thong Su: History of the Le Dynasty), Annam Chi Luoc (Short
Record of Annan), Van Dai Loai Ngu (Classified discourse from the library), Tuong Le An Mac
Tap, Mai Linh su hoa thi tap…
* Secondary Sources: research has been published or presented by both Vietnamese and
foreign scholars related to the subject, comprising dissertations, monographs, academic reports,
articles on academic journals, conference proceedings and draft papers…
5.2. Methodologies
The main methodology is employed in the course of conducting this thesis is historical
analysis and logics. Much of our time and commitment have done with analyzing the source,
make comparison with different material on the same topic and tracing back the events to the
original source as possible. The dissertation also is built based on chronological and coincident
paradigm in order to present the dissertation’s theme and argument clearly and systematically.
Moreover, this dissertation picks up some case studies, using multi-and-inter-discipline
approach in examining the sources and analyzing events with much authenticity and
comprehension as we can recall from the written evidences.
6. The Contributions of this Dissertation
Shedding new lights upon some objectives of the research, this work can make some

BETWEEN MING AND DAIVIET
1.1. The Large-scale Development of the Idea of “Celestial Court and Vassal” under the
Ming
The ideological foundation shaping the Ming’s idea of conferring title and tribute norm
between China and other kingdoms, including Daiviet is the relationship between “Celestial
Court and Vassal kingdoms”. The thought has been overwhelmingly influenced diplomatic
behavior of Chinese dynasties toward dealing with smaller surrounding polities.
The belief of “Celestial Court” tienchao 天朝 – “Vassal” zhuhou 諸侯 is enforced by the
belief based on the role of the Chinese Emperor in the feudal time. The Chinese Emperor is
recognized as the central figure who, on behalf of the Heaven, responsible to rule over the Land
(tianxia 天 下 ). Over the Land, China is the “Central Kingdom”, stands at the middle as
“Celestial Court” meanwhile surrounded by “Vassal kingdoms”. The relationship between the
Celestial Court and Vassal Kingdoms is characterized as “Patron-client” (central emperor-
dependent surrounding rulers). The performance of this relationship is institutionalized in the
form of “Asking for Conferring titles”, “Conferring titles”, and “Paying tribute”.
The idea of “Celestial Court and Vassals” at the meantime is strengthened by the usage of
Confucianism which plays as central authorized ideology in Chinese feudal society.
Confucianism with its believes in Rectification of Names (zhengming, 正 名 ) and The Three
Major relationship 三 綱 sankang strictly protect social hierarchy. According to those thoughts,
the clients have to submit unconditionally to the patron, officials have to obey the king and rulers
of smaller kingdoms have to follow instructions of the Chinese Emperor. In additional, the
Chinese uses the belied of tianming 天命 to justify the asymmetrical exchange.
In the time of the Ming, the dynasty’s prosperity and strength built on the highly
centralized government, the idea of “Celestial court and Vassals” could receive more supports
and patronage from the state which led to a higher level of development. This was clearly
showed through the way Ming Emperors conceptualized their personal position and their
kingdom in the world.
Those Chinese Emperors, like their predecessors on the throne, always recognized
themselves of having Heaven’s faith to rule over the surface of all the directions, not only the
“Central Kingdoms” but also “thousand of kingdoms in the Four Seas” who were described as

kingdoms wanted to have good relationship with China for different political motivation as well
as for seeking trading exchange with the Central Kingdom.
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At the same time, the centralized state machine and advanced economics allowed the
Ming to run a new power project to spread influence over the neighbors and possibly with
domination and territorial expansion.
1.4. The Need of Daiviet’s Dynasties in building Conferring title, Tribute and harmonious
relationship with the Ming
When the Ming ruled over China (1368-1644), there were significant political chances in
Daiviet which led to the consequent governance of various dynasties, namely Tran, Ho, Le, Mac,
and Le Trung Hung. However every among them was ultimately interested in building and
maintaining Conferring title, Tribute and stable relationship with the Ming. This contributes as
an important factor responsible for the steadily of the Ming-Daiviet diplomatic exchange in those
three centuries.
It was not the case that highly autonomous dynasties such as Tran, Ho, Le, Mac and Le
Trung Hung were not aware of the asymmetry associated with this interaction. However, their
choices are the same: accepting the Conferring title and paying tribute in order to exchange with
peaceful relationship. There are number of reasons responsible for this choice:
First of all, the Daiviet’s dynasties came to a clear awareness that by accepting
Conferring Title and paying tribute, their independence, peace, national security and territorial
sovereignty are protected.
Secondly, Conferring title of the Ming was being used by the Tran Ho, Le and Le Trung
Hung to justify their domestic legitimacy which helps to overcome other opposition parties.
Thirdly, Daiviet’s dynasties accepted the Chinese Conferring titles and paying tribute to
China also resulted from their influence from Confucianism.
1.5. Conferring Title and Tribute Relation between China and Viet before the Ming
Dynasty
Despite of the long interaction between China and Vietnam, the Conferring Titles and
Tribute Relation only came to establish since the tenth century as our people gained
independence to end nearly one thousand years of the “Northern Domination”. Since then up to

Daiviet in a new chapter of such exchange between the fourteenth and the seventeenth centuries.
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CHAPTER 2
CONFERRING TITLE AND TRIBUTE RELATION BETWEEN MING AND
DAIVIET FROM 1368 TO 1527
2.1. Conferring Title and Tribute Relation between Ming and Tran Dynasty (1368-1400)
2.1.1. Establishment of the Ming-Tran’s Conferring Title and Tribute Relation
At time the Ming was founded in China, political situation in Daiviet was very much
different. The China was started with a new dynasty meanwhile the Tran was coming down from
their peak and engaging in time of chaotic.
Obviously Daiviet hold an essential position among other southern kingdoms and Chu
Nguyen Chuong at the very early days of his reign demanded for a steady relation. Thus Daiviet
was put on the top of the vassal list in which diplomatic mission was sent to. Chu Nguyen
Chuong right after came to the throne dispatched an envoy to Daiviet to inform of his victory
over the Mongol and the foundation of a new dynasty, the Ming.
An identical situation with the Ming was also reported from the Daiviet’s perspective;
since the Tran and Yuan diplomatic exchange was interrupted, especially during the late Yuan
dynasty, the Tran was at some points interested in reconnecting Conferring Titles and Tribute
Relation with China. The reasons were that the Tran found both suspicious and necessary to link
the diplomatic channel for their own domestic challenges. As a result, right after receiving Chu
Nguyen Chuong announcement in 1369, a mission was sent to the Ming Court in order to ask for
conferring title. Since this is the first foreign envoy came to pay tribute to new Chinese dynasty,
it had warm welcome from Minh Thai To. In return, the Ming dispatched a mission to Daiviet,
those brought with imperial decree to confer Tran Du Tong as “An Nam Quoc Vuong” (King of
Annam), and bestow him with a gold-silver seal in camel shape.
The event made a watershed for the setting of the Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation
between the Ming and Tran.
2.1.2. Rituals of Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation
Since the early days of his reign, Ming Thai To Chu Nguyen Chuong made a tremendous
effort to recover Chinese traditional diplomatic relation which was disconnected during the

In 1398 Ming Thai To Chu Nguyen Chuong passed away. Because of the early death his
oldest son, his grandson, Chu Doan Van took the throne who then named his reign as Kien Van;
it was the Ming’s Emperor Ming Hue De. However, the fourth son of Chu Nguyen Chuong, Chu
De (who at that time took responsible to protect northern frontier of China with the tile of Yen
Vuong) raised army to against the new king. In 1402, Chu De captured the capital of Nanjing
and crowed himself as emperor in the title of Vinh Lac. It was the great king Ming Thanh To of
the Ming who ruled the kingdom in an extraordinary time of the relationship between China and
other countries in the region in general and with Daiviet in particular.
2.2.2. Establishment of the Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation between Ming and Ho
and Tension between the two
In the twelfth month in the year of dragon (1400), Ho Quy Ly passed the throne to his
son, Ho Han Thuong, and himself titled as ”Senior King” (shanghoang).
Informed of the news that Chu De overthrew Kien Van and became the new emperor, Ho
Han Thuong immediately sent an envoy to congratulate and also asked for conferring as “king”.
Receiving the report from the Ho Dynasty the elder people of Annam, Chu De then
dispatched a diplomatic mission and “specially” conferring Ho Han Thuong as “An Nam Quoc
Vuong” (King of Annam).
The event can be seen as a victory of the Ho dynasty because it virturely gave the
overthrow of the Tran with legitimacy. Therefore, the reconnecting Conferring Titles and Tribute
Relation between the Ming and Ho went smoothly because it missed the mutual expectation and
benefits from both at that time.
Through the years of 1403 and 1404, the relationship between the Ming and Tran was
maintained steadily. However the days did not last for long. In 1404, the conflict started with
border dispute, problem of Champa, and especially the incident of Tran Thiem Binh.
Taking account of “punishing Ho Quy Ly” and “supporting the Tran”, in July 1406, the
Ming launched campaigns of eight hundred thousand troops approaching Daiviet along Yunnan
and Guangxi. The invasion eliminated independence of Daiviet and opened for decades of
Chinese domination in our country (1406-1427).
2.3. Conferring Title and Tribute Relation between Ming and Le So (1428-1527)
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Coming across the Chinese and Vietnamese sources, the Le dynasty exchanged tribute
mission for every three years as Hong Vu had instructed. Making an account based on Complete
History and Mingshilu, between 1431 and 1518, there were 29 Le’s diplomats came to the Ming
to pay tribute for 87 years. Tribute products also followed the Ming’s rule. Gifts returned by the
Ming court were usually paper money, silk costume and various kind of silk.
For a number of reasons, this interaction was maintained peacefully and progressively.
Through our survey, it appears that two main reasons involved can be pointed out, the instability
in Chinese politics with increasing pressure from the northern, southwestern and eastern frontiers
and more importantly the development of Daiviet in Le So period. In other words, both Ming and
Le So in the early fifteenth centuries hold the same concern to keep frontiers peaceful and to
maintain sustainable diplomatic channel, that would allow both to deal with their own foreign
and domestic challenges. And therefore we see a particular steady relationship over those years.
Sub-conclusion of the Chapter 2
For one and a half century from the founding of the Ming to the early sixteenth century,
Ming-Daiviet diplomatic exchange experienced various levels and rise and fall. Looking back
the diplomatic exchange from 1368 to the early sixteenth, Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation
were the focal agenda and laying the foundation for any other exchange. Much of other
interactions were fundamentally based mutual recognition through the ritual and performance of
Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation.
Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation were run by various foundations; in the center of
those was interest. Through this channel, the Ming gained tremendous economic and political
advantages, meanwhile by “submission” to the Ming, Daiviet’s dynasties, especially Le So,
enriched their power domestically as well as to expand influence toward the region. By the
fifteenth century, position of Daiviet in the region was recovered and gradually became a
Mainland power in Southeast Asia while still kept their close link with China than any southern
kingdom. Interest plays as the common theme and sharing value in shaping the existence and
development of the Ming and Daiviet during this period of time.
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CHAPTER 3
CONFERRING TITLE AND TRIBUTE RELATION BETWEEN MING AND

Dung was considered as a Chinese official, the situation has never happened before in the
Chinese-Daiviet Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation since the tenth century (when the
Sung conferred Dinh Tien Hoang as King of the Giao Chi Prefecture).
- Since then, on behalf of the Ming’s central government, officials at
Guangxi had responsible to offer the Mac with “Imperial Calendar”, the simple of
superiority of the Chinese Celestial court, as well as to deal with the Mac on diplomatic
agenda.
Despite of demoting the title conferring to the Mac, Ming dynasty maintained request
of paying tribute for every three years. During the 48 years from the first Mac’s envoy in
1542 to the last one in 1590, there were 8 missions sent to the Ming Court in the following
years (the year the diplomat came to the Ming court): 1543, 1545, 1565, 1575, 1576, 1581,
1585, 1590, for sixteen times of tribute. With 16 times of paying tribute to the Ming for 48
years, the Mac appropriately followed the rule of paying tribute for every three years.
3.2. Conferring Title and Tribute Relation between Ming and Le Trung Hung (1592-1644)
3.2.1. The Restoration of the Le and Recovery of the Conferring Title and Tribute
Relation between Ming and Le Trung Hung
In 1592, Le Trung Hung defeated the Mac and then marked a new period for the
Conferring Title and Tribute Relation between Ming and Daiviet.
Being aware of the fact that the Le had captured Mac’s territory and pushed remains of
the later to the northern border; Ming dynasty decided to recognize both at the same time. For the
Le, Ming offered four conditions in return for the recognition and tribute relation: firstly, Le Duy
Dam (Le The Tong, the new Le king) has himself to go to "the South Holding Frontier Post"
(Tran Nam quan/Zhennan guan),and ask for tolerance. Secondly, return the golden seal. Thirdly,
pay tribute golden statues, and fourthly, allow the Mac to settle in Cao Bang.
In the twelfth month of the year of Dog (1598), the Ming Court dispatched their official,
Vuong Kien Lap with conferring letter to Le The Tong as commissioner of the Supervisory
Command of the Secure South (Annam Do Thong Su). The Conferring Titles and Tribute
Relation between Ming and Le Trung Hung were established.
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3.2.2. Tribute of the Le Trung Hung

relation
Diplomatic relation between Ming and Daiviet during the fourteenth and seventeenth
centuries presents various elements; Conferring Title and Tribute Relation was only one level
among those. However Conferring Title and Tribute Relation is the most substantial and lay the
foundation for other forms of interaction. This is depicted through a number of points.
Firstly, unless there was Conferring Title and Tribute Relation, or this channel was
interrupted, there would be no other diplomatic exchange between the two.
Secondly, if tribute is not properly paid, there will be conflicts and antagonism between
Ming and Daiviet.
4.2. Rise and fall of the Conferring Title and Tribute Relation between the Ming and
Daiviet very much depends on the balanced of power between the two kingdoms and their
domestic political situation
Correlates of power between the two kingdoms and political development in each state
are two fundamental factors shaping the shift of the three hundred year Conferring Title and
Tribute Relation between the Ming and Daiviet. Power shifts and political changes in the Ming
and Daiviet associated with the need for both to reshape their diplomatic policies, especially to
the Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation. In other words, such interaction reflects power
interrelation in each specific period of time.
4.3. Conferring Title and Tribute Relation between Ming and Daiviet are generally
sustainable and peaceful, and those interruption and antagonism can be negotiated and
compromised by both sides
Looking at the century of the Conferring Title and Tribute Relation between Ming and
Daiviet, there were many complex elements and levels can be recalled, at one point was peaceful
and cooperative, at another point was tensional and interrupted. Overall, however the Conferring
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Titles and Tribute Relation between Ming and Daiviet from 1368 to 1644 were stable and
conflicts could be solved through compromise.
Different from other kingdoms in Southeast Asia, Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation
between Ming and Daiviet were under influence of three elements of interest, culture, and
geography. Those factors are interrelated and had mutual interaction which set up diplomatic

they followed the Ming’s ideology of power hierarchy of patron-client, superior and inferior, and
show their submission, even though it was reflected only by diplomatic words (used only for
diplomatic letters and rituals for the Ming). On the other hands, in reality, Daiviet’s dynasties did
not not only submit to the Ming but also depend on the Chinese court on any of its policy.
Additionally, they had full independence in coping with domestic and foreign policies and
maintaining the kingdom’s sovereignty and territory, as well as showing national pride toward
the Ming China. The theme can be presented in a number of traits:
• Daiviet’s dynasties independently chose their emperors and heir to the
throne.
• Daiviet’s dynasties neither used any title of Chinese emperors nor seals
conferred by the Ming, but to cast their own seals and name their titles.
• Most of the Daiviet’s kings used fake names in diplomatic documents sent
to China.
• Daiviet’s dynasties did not accept certain forms and rituals of the Chinese
Chinese diplomatic norm, such as rituals to welcome Chinese embassy and receive
Chinese imperial conferring letter.
• Daiviet’s dynasties were fully independent to carry out their domestic and
foreign policies.
• Daiviet’s dynasties were strong and determined to protect bordering
security and territorial sovereignty.
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CONCLUSION
The concept of Tributary system is derived from western terminology which then is
translated back into Chinese as chaogong tixi 朝贡体系, in order to reveal a particular process of
the diplomacy between China and its neighbors in the feudal time, in which Conferring Titles
and Tribute Relation is the fundamental foundation to make the system workable.
Conferring Title and Tribute Relation between Ming and Daiviet (1368-1644) provides
us with typical example for this performance of diplomatic exchange. Such characteristics reveal
the Ming-Daiviet Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation with their long-lasting existence and
compromising dedicated by both kingdoms for their short-and long-term benefits. What is more,

by the previous warfare such as inhesion of the throne in Daiveit, border dispute, and Daiviet-
Champa conflict, and they still at some point involved with the diplomatic exchange. The
develop of Daiviet and their previous victory over the Ming strengthened Le So’s power in
dealing with China and helped them to maintain it stable and balanced.
In the second period (1527-1644), the form of Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation
between Ming and Daiviet has been changed. Making used of the political crisis in Daiviet,
especially Mac Dang Dung’s overthrow of the Le dynasty and civil war between the Southern
and Northern dynasties, the Ming forced Mac and Le Trung Hung to follow their political
monopoly and control. Finally, the Ming only conferred kings of both Mac and Le Trung Hung
with title of Commissioner of the Supervisory Command of the Secure South or Do Thong Su to
deepen Daiviet’s dependence on the Ming. To maintain normal relation with the Ming and avoid
any potential conflict, kings of Mac and Le Trung Hung accepted the title. However the
submission was only presented in the diplomatic words. In fact kings of Mac and Le Trung Hung
claimed themselves as emperors and had full authority to rule over the kingdom. The Ming
completely had no possibility to intervene in the dynasties’ affairs; even tribute from Daiviet was
combined with two times of paying tribute (every six years) for only one envoy. This one more
time reflects that the Conferring Titles and Tribute Relation between the Ming and Daitviet are
largely symbolic rather than being seriously practiced.
The Conferring Title and Tribute Relation between Ming and Daiviet share common
straits with those between Ming and other neighbors; however they also reveal a number of
specific characteristics. They include the fact that continuous rise and fall of the exchange
depend on power relation between two kingdoms and political situation within those domains. It
is also suggested that conflict and antagonism between the two finally address and solve through
negotiation and compromise. The new performance of Daiviet into Conferring Titles and Tribute