ViETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY , hANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES ANDINTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES PHẠM THỊ MAI OANH

METAPHORS USED IN INAUGURAL ADDRESSES MADE
BY THE US PRESIDENTS

(ẨN DỤ TRONC CÁC BÀI PHÁT BIỂU NHẬM CHỨC CỦA
CÁC TỔNG THỐNG MỸ)

MINOR M.A THESIS

Field : English Linguistics
Code: 60 22 15

3. Scope of the study………………………………………………………………….
4. Methods of the study ……………………………………………………………
5. Design of the study………………………………………………………………
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 1: Theoretical background
1.1. The simile theory by Aristotle ……………………………………
1.2. The interaction theory by I.A Richard and Max Black ………………………
1.3. The classical cognitive metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson ……………
1.3.1. What is metaphor? …………………………………………………….
1.3.2. The nature of conceptual metaphor………………………………………….
1.3.3. Components of conceptual metaphor………………………………………
13.4. Classification of conceptual metaphor………………………………………
1.3.4.1. Ontological metaphor……………………………………………………….
1.3.4.1.1. Container metaphor ………………………………………………………
1.3.4.1.2. Substance metaphor ………………………………………………………
1.3.4.1.3. Entity metaphor …………………………………………………………
1.3.4.2. Orientational metaphor……………………………………………………
1.3.4.3. Structural metaphor ………………………………………………………
Chapter 2: The study
2.1. Research Questions……………………………………………………………
2.2. Data collection …… …………………………………………………………
2.3. Analytical framework…………………………………………………………
1
1
2
2 3
4

38

40
40
40
42 APPENDIX I
APPENDIX II
APPENDIX III
APPENDIX IV

iv


of metaphor is one of the most prominent tools for persuasion and an effective
instrument for propaganda in political language. The president‘s inaugural addresses
are delivered to show the president‘s responsibility for the people‘s desires and
demands, to gain the people‘s support for the new government. Therefore, presidents
have to use rhetorical strategies to convince their citizens and metaphor is one of the
rhetorical strategies which are found to be commonly used in inaugural addresses.
Thus, I would like to conduct a study on the use of metaphor in inaugural addresses
made by the US presidents to find out what types of metaphor are commonly used and
how effective they are.
2. Aims of the study
This study was conducted to fulfill the following aims:
- to provide knowledge about conceptual metaphor from Lakoff and Johnson‘s
perspective.
- to investigate the use of conceptual metaphor in inaugural addresses made by
the US presidents and the implicit emotional influence of these metaphors on the
audience.
These aims of the study were achieved via the following research question:
What types of conceptual metaphors are used in inaugural addresses made by
the US presidents?
3. Scope of the study
Within this paper, I would like to focus my attention on theories of metaphor.
Cognitive theory about metaphor developed by Lakoff and Johnson will be presented
in details in terms of definition, nature, components and classification. Then four
inaugural addresses made by George H. W. Bush (1989), William Bill Clinton 2
(1993), George W. Bush (2001) and Barak Obama (2009) are analyzed using Lakoff
and Johnson‘s theory to find out typical conceptual metaphors in these speeches.
4. Methods of the study


3
PART B: DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1: THEORITICAL BACKGROUND
1.1. The simile theory by Aristotle
Aristotle‘s theory about metaphor is said to be the oldest theory until recently. The
word metaphor in Greek meant "carry across" or "transfer", and is normally used to refer to
the method of comparing two different items based on resemblance or similarity. From
Aristotle‘s point of view, metaphor is based on ―seeing resemblances‖ in things.
According to Aristotle, metaphor is defined as a ―transfer of a name belonging elsewhere‖
(cited in Michiel Leesenberg, 2001:33). Here Aristotle limits metaphorical expressions to
words or even single noun ―a name‖. Metaphor is merely a substitute for some other
expressions, which expresses the same ―cognitive content‖ if it is literally used. ―Thing‖
here refers not only to physical objects but also to any topic or thought. ―Name‖ here
cannot be used in the sense of proper or common names but must be understood as any
sign.
Additionally, Aristotle privileges metaphor as the more generic figure of speech
and states that simile is actually the longer form of metaphor. In other words, metaphors
are ―compressed‖ or ―abbreviated‖ similes. Therefore, the meaning of a metaphor is
identified with that of the corresponding simile. As a result, metaphor ―A is B‖ is
understood as ―A is like B‖.
In general, the theory of metaphor by Aristotle has both intuitive and
methodological motivations. First, it seems that some sorts of comparisons are made in
metaphor. Furthermore, this theory seems to account for our conflicting intuitions about
metaphor‘s truth values. For example, the sentence ― Mary is a rose‖ is false if it is literally
interpreted because ―Mary‖ – a person- is clearly not a rose, but the simile that gives the
sentence‘s metaphorical meaning is true : ―Mary is like a rose‖. To some extent, this theory
explains the meaningfulness of metaphor.
However, we cannot either describe with certainty Aristotle‘s theory as either

These views of Richards are further developed by Max Black. According to Max
Black, metaphor is not an isolated item but it is considered a sentence. A metaphorical
sentence involves two subjects which are identified as the principal and the secondary.
The primary subject is the frame which is the literal surrounding. The secondary (the
metaphor) entails the focus-a system of associated commonplaces of the metaphorical
word. The secondary subject (the metaphor) connects a system of associated
commonplaces (or a system of associated stereotyped information) to the frame which is
the primary subject. 5
The metaphoric interaction between the focus and frame will be more clarified in
the following diagram. METAPHORICAL MEANING OF SENTENCE
To sum up, this theory offers three new points. Firstly, metaphor creates
similarities. Secondly, metaphor is considered to possess ―cognitive content‖ existing at
sentence level. Finally, this cognitive content is produced by the ―interaction‖ between
different cognitive systems. By this theory, metaphors are proved to function as powerful
cognitive tools. However, there are still some problems with this theory. This theory is
criticized for its analysis in terms of ‗interaction‖ and ‗filter‖, which are also metaphors;
therefore, it does not solve the problem.


First, they claim that metaphors are pervasive everywhere. Secondly, they figure out that
metaphors are based on our bodily experience.
First of all, metaphors are proved to be pervasive everywhere. At that time,
metaphors were seen as a matter of language but not of thoughts. Thus, metaphoric
expressions are assumed to be outside the domain of ordinary everyday language.
However, Lakoff realizes that metaphor does not only exist in poetry but we use them all
the time and use them in a far more encompassing manner. Metaphors are a part of
everyday language, integral and important to understanding because ―most of our ordinary
conceptual system is metaphorical in nature‖ (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:4). ―Metaphor is a
tool so ordinary that we sue it unconsciously and automatically, with so little effort that we
hardly notice it……….It is conventional. Metaphor is an integral part of our everyday
thought and language‖ (Lakoff and Turner, 1989: xi). Obviously, metaphor is pervasive
and people use metaphors without noticing it.
Secondly, metaphor is claimed to be based on embodied human experience. We
make sense of less directly apprehensible experiences on the basis of more directly
apprehensible experiences. From cognitive perspective, language is not structured
arbitrarily. It is motivated and grounded more or less directly in experience, in our bodily
physical, social, and cultural experiences. Mental and linguistic categories are abstract,
disembodied. People create them on the basis of their concrete experiences and under the
constraints imposed by their bodies. For example, the conceptual metaphor ―AFFECTION
IS WARMTH‖ is created on the basis of our childhood experiences between the loving
embrace of our parents and the comforting bodily warmth that accompany it.

1.3.3. Components of conceptual metaphor
According to Lakoff and Johnson, metaphor is seen as a cognitive mechanism
whereby one conceptual domain is partially mapped onto a different conceptual domain. 7
The second domain is partially understood in terms of the first one with the linguistic


8
As ―seek‖, ―search for‖, ―found‖, ―lost‖ are quite familiar, people do not think them
as metaphors. However, they are metaphors in fact and they help us understand ―wealth‖-
an abstract concept easier and more clearly.
In short, ontological metaphors help us to represent an abstract thing in terms of
something concrete such as an object, substance, container or person. In more details,
ontological metaphor is subdivided into container metaphor, substance metaphor and entity
metaphor.

1.3.4.1.1. Container metaphor
Container metaphor is an ontological metaphor in which some concept is
represented as
- having something inside and outside
- being capable of hiding something else
This means that non-physical objects are transformed into physical objects with
define boundaries. Examples of this kind of metaphor are shown in expressions of
metaphor LIFE IS A CONTAINER.
I‘ve had a full life.
Life is empty for him.
There‘s not much left for him in life.
His life is scrammed with activities.
Get the most out of life.
His life contained a great deal of sorrow.
Live your life to the fullest.

1.3.4.1.2. Substance metaphor
Substance metaphor is an ontological metaphor in which an abstraction such as an
event, activity, emotion or idea is represented as material substance. Examples of this kind
of metaphor can be shown in expressions of metaphor VITALITY IS A SUBSTANCE.

1.3.4.2. Orientational metaphor
Orientational metaphor is a metaphor in which concepts are spatially related to each
other. Orientational metaphor organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to
another. Orientational metaphor explains a concept in terms of space or ―give a concept a
spatial orientation‖ ( Lakoff and Johnson, 1980: 15). Most of orientational metaphors relate
to spatial orientation such as up-down, in-out, deep-shallow, on-off, central-peripheral.
Orientational metaphors are not arbitrary. They have a basis in our physical and
cultural experience. Followings are some common orientational metaphors:
10
E.g.1. HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN.
I‘m feeling up. That boosted my spirit. My spirits rose. You are in high spirits.
Thinking about her always gives me a lift.
I‘m feeling down. I‘m depressed. He‘s really low these days. I fell into depression.
My spirit sank.
These metaphors are created on the basis that drooping posture typically goes along
with sadness and depression while erect posture often goes with a positive emotional state.
E.g. 2. MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN.
The number of books printed each year keeps going up. His draft number is high.
My income rose last year.
The amount of artistic activity in this state has gone down since last year. The
number of errors made by him is incredibly low. His income fell last year. He‘s underage.
If you are too hot, turn the heat down.
These metaphors are based on physical experience, that is if we add more substance
of physical subject to a container or pile the level goes up
E.g.3. CONSCIOUS IS UP, UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN.
Wake up. He rises early in the morning.
He fell asleep. He dropped off to sleep. He‘s under hypnosis. He sank into a coma.

domain. For example, the structural metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY will consist of a
source domain (journey) and a target domain (life) and a mapping between these domains (
the person leading a life correspond to traveler ; the life goals correspond to destinations on
the journey; difficulties in life correspond to impediments to travel). Thus, the following
expressions are examples of this metaphor.
He‘s got a head start in life. He‘s without direction in his life.
I‘m where I want to be in life.
I‘m at a crossroads in my life.
He‘ll go places in life.
He‘s never let anyone get in his way.
It is said that this kind of metaphor is ―embedded in the conceptual framework of
our culture‖. This mean that structural metaphors are results of how we view the world
around us.
In summary, Lakoff and Johnson‘s contributions play an important role in the
development of cognitive theory about metaphor. Their theory about conceptual metaphor
has been the basis for a number of studies on metaphor. An analysis of conceptual
metaphors used in inaugural addresses made by the US presidents will be clearly presented
in the next chapter in the light of this theory. 12
CHAPTER 2: THE STUDY
2.1. Research questions
The study was conducted to answer the following question:
What types of conceptual metaphors are used in inaugural addresses made by the
US presidents?
2. 2. Data collection
Data were collected from four inaugural addresses made by George H.W Bush
(1989), Bill Clinton (1993), George W. Bush (2001) and Barack Obama (2009).
2.3. Analytical framework

1. I was magnetically drawn to
her.
(LOVE IS A PHYSICAL
ELETROMAGNETIC FORCE)
2. His religion tells him he can‘t
drink wine.
(RELIGION AS A PERSON)
2.Orientational metaphor
Concepts are spatially
related to each other.
HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN
1. I‘m feeling up.
2. My spirit sank. 13
3.Structural metaphor
One concept is
understood in terms of
another structured,
sharply defined
concept.
LIFE IS A JOURNEY
I‘m at a crossroads in my life. 2.4. Data analysis and discussion
In the following section, the four inaugural addresses are analyzed in terms of
ontological metaphor, structural metaphor and orientational metaphor from Lakoff and
Johnson‘s perspective. In terms of meaning interpretation, only metaphors which are used

Total
276
37
5

Table 1 describes the number of conceptual metaphors including ontological
metaphor, structural metaphor and orientational metaphor. As can be seen, ontological
metaphors are used with the highest frequency (276 metaphors). Orientational metaphors
are employed with the smallest number (5 metaphors). Thus, the next part will deal with
the analysis of conceptual metaphors with the following order. Ontological metaphors with
the biggest number will be discussed in details first. Secondly, structural metaphors are 14
interpreted. Lastly, orientational metaphors with the smallest number will be briefly
discussed.

2.4.1. Ontological metaphor
Table 2: Ontological metaphors in four inaugural addresses Addresses
Ontological metaphor

Ent. Met

Sub. Met

Con. Met
1. By George H.W Bush (1989)

Ontological metaphors will be analyzed in the order of entity metaphor, substance
metaphor and then container metaphor. Being used with the greatest number, entity
metaphor will be discussed in details in terms of as object and as person. Of all entity
metaphors, metaphors which appears twice or more will be analyzed to reveal the implicit
meaning. 15
Table 3: Entity metaphors in four inaugural addresses
Addresses
Entity metaphor

As object

As a person
1. By George H.W Bush (1989)
36
16
1. By William Bill Clinton (1993)
32
23
2. By George W. Bush (2001)
32
24

3
Engagement
3
Politics
1
3
1

Ideal 3
1
Life 1
2
Success 1
2


2

Challenge

2 Strength 2
1
Ambition
2

Table 4 mentions the number of as object metaphors which are used twice or more
in terms of each concept. Next, these metaphors will be discussed in details,
Gorge H.W. Bush uses time as object metaphor four times. This metaphor is used
the first time in ―I come before you and assume the Presidency at a moment rich with
promise‖. By using this instance, he would like to emphasize that the time when he takes
office is a good time with a lot of advantages. His new government and all Americans
should make use of it.
The second instance of this metaphor is ―The totalitarian era is passing, its old
ideas blown away like leaves from an ancient lifeless tree.‖ H.W Bush aims to claim that
totalitarian time which is not good for the country‘s development is over. A new better
time is coming and people should welcome it.
The third instance is found in the sentence ―there are times when the future seems

by the state‖ and in ―Our challenges are great, but our will is greater‖. He emphasizes the
strong will of American people. They are strong-willed enough to overcome challenges.
This encourages people to make more effort to the development of the country.
In George H.W Bush‘s address, three instances are found using engagement as
object metaphor including ―I am speaking of a new engagement in the lives of others, a
new activism…‖, ―We need a new engagement, too between the Executive and the
Congress‖ and ―To the world, we offer new engagement and a renewed vow: we will stay
strong to protect the peace.‖ By using this metaphor, he calls for participation and mutual
support between the Executive and the Congress, which lead to strong leadership of the
new government. He also claims that America will maintain the world peace and
encourages other country to take part in the process of maintaining the world peace.
Politics as object metaphor is also frequently used in three out of four addresses.
George H.W Bush uses this metaphor in ―For democracy belongs to us all, and freedom is 18
like a beautiful kite that can go higher and higher with the breeze‖. Democracy and
freedom is the goals to be achieved by the government. They are considered as real things
to imply that these things can be easily achieved under the leadership of the new
government.
Politics as object metaphor is also employed in Bill Clinton‘s in three instances.
With two instances in ―Our democracy must be not only the envy of the world but the
engine of our renewal.‖ and ―To renew America, we must revitalize our democracy‖. Bill
Clinton plays a stress on the great importance of the US‘s democracy. It is the ―engine‖-
the most important part of the country‘s renovation. This entails the importance of
revitalizing the democracy. It must be the first mission of the new government and he calls
for the support from other politicians and American people for changing the democracy for
the better.
In the third instance ―Americans deserve better, and in this city today, there are
people who want to do better. And so I say to all of us here, let us resolve to reform our

is a call to conscience….we find the fullness of life not only in options, but in
commitments.‖ in George W. Bush‘s speech. George W. Bush wants to emphasize that
people‘s commitments in actions are the key to a happy life. Obama uses this metaphor
two times in ―For us, they packed up their few worldly possessions and traveled across
oceans in search of a new life.” and ―Time and again these men and women struggled and
sacrificed and worked till their hands were raw so that we live a better life.‖ He aims to say
that the life that American people are having is the result of sacrifice and hard work. Thus,
they must protect what they are enjoying and try their best to make their life better and
better.
Success as object is the other kind of entity metaphor that is used by George H.W
Bush and Obama. In George H.W Bush‘s speech, it is found in ―if he can celebrate the
quieter, deeper successes that are made of not of gold and silk, [ ]‖.Success in this speech
is a concrete thing that can be measured. Therefore, it is easy for the new president to
achieve. He is sure about that. People can trust him and his new government.
Obama employs this metaphor two times in ―The success of our economy has
always depended not just in the size of our gross domestic product, but on the reach of our
prosperity; on our ability to extend opportunity to every willing heart …but because it is
the surest route to our common good.‖. This metaphor is aimed to encourage people to
increase domestic productivity and make their best effort to develop the country‘s
economy.
George H.W Bush and George Bush exploit faith as object metaphor. This
metaphor is found in George H.W Bush‘s address in the instance ―Heavenly Father we 20
bow our heads and thank You for Your love. Accept out thanks for the peace that yields
this day and the shared faith that makes its continuance likely.‖ The Americans share the
same faith in Heavenly Father and in the leadership of the new government. This faith
plays an important role in the development of the country. Hopefully, this faith is
maintained forever.

to devote themselves to the country. Obama uses challenge as object metaphor in ―Today I
say to you that the challenges we face are real. They are serious and they are many.‖ with
the same meaning.
Ambition as object metaphor is used twice in Obama‘s speech in ―They saw
America as bigger than the sum of our individual ambitions; greater the than differences of
birth or wealth or faction.‖ and ―Now, there are some who questions the scale of our
ambitions- who suggest that our system cannot tolerate to many big plans. Their memories
are short. For they have forgotten what this country has done‖. Obama reveals a fact that
every American has his own ambition. And all these ambitions are joined together to make
America with great ambition. America has already fulfilled its great ambition and it
continues to do better in the future.

Table 5: “As person” entity metaphors in four inaugural addresses

Concepts
―As person‖ entity metaphor
George H.W
Bush‘s address
Bill Clinton‘s
address
George Bush‘s
address
Obama‘s
address
Nation
7
8
10
8
World