iii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements i
Abstract ii
List of tables, figures, and abbreviations v
PART A: INTRODUCTION 1
1. Statement of the research problem and rationale for the study 1
2. Aims of the study 2
3. Scope of the study 3
4. Methodology 3
5. Significance of the study 4
6. Organisation of the thesis: 4
PART B: DEVELOPMENT 6
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 6
1.1. Review of literature related to Self-efficacy and Teacher Self-efficacy theories 6
1.1.1. Definition, roles, sources, and types of self-efficacy 6
1.1.2. Self-efficacy and Social cognitive theory 11
1.1.3. Teacher self-efficacy 13
1.2. Demographic factors that affect teacher self-efficacy 16
1.2.1. Teacher self-efficacy and teaching experience 16
1.2.2. Teacher self-efficacy and gender 17
1.3. Dimensions of teacher self-efficacy 18
1.4. Non-native English speaker teacher & Teacher self-efficacy 20
1.4.1. Non-native vs. Native English speaker teacher 20
1.4.2. Non-native English speaker teacher self-efficacy 21
1.5. The context of teaching at the Faculty of English Language Teacher Training,
University of Languages and International Studies (FELTE, ULIS) 23
1.6. How does this study fit into other research? 24
1.7. Summary 27
LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND ABBREVIATIONS
List of Tables
Table 1 - Reliability of Karimvand’s (2011) instrument 32
Table 2 - Cronbach's alpha Coefficients for the TEBS-S 32
Table 3 - TEBS-Self factor analysis results – 4 extracted components 37
Table 4 - TEBS-Self factor analysis results – Factor loadings 38
Table 5 - Participants' profile 42
Table 6 - NNESTs’ general efficacy beliefs (N=34) 44
Table 7 - Dimensions of TEBS-S 45
Table 8 - Statistics of the four sub-scales for NNESTs 45
Table 9 - NESTs’ general efficacy beliefs (N=6) 47
Table 10 - Statistics of the four sub-scales for NESTs 48
Table 11 - Statistics of the four sub-scales for NESTs and NNESTs 49
Table 12 - Independent samples t-test of the four sub-scales for NESTs and NNESTs 50
Table 13 - Gender aspect of the four dimensions of teacher self-efficacy 51
Table 14 - Experience aspect of the four dimensions of teacher self-efficacy 52

vi List of Figures
Figure 1 - Bandura’s (1997) Triadic Reciprocal Causation Model 12
Figure 2 - Sample gender 39
Figure 3 - Teaching experience of the sample teachers 40
Figure 4 - Nationalities of the sample teachers 41

vii


language teachers who are non-native English speakers can be seen in English as a Second
Language (ESL) as well as in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts around the
world. This raises so much interest in issues related to non-native English speaker teachers
(NNEST) in the field of teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) that a
proliferation of papers, theses, dissertations, and publications has been dedicated to the
topic. Specifically, the issues of NNESTs have been examined from chiefly three different
areas of interest, which are the self-perceptions of NNESTs (e.g. Amin, 1997; Medgyes,
1983, 1994; Reves & Medgyes, 1994), the credibility of NNESTs (e.g. Amin, 1997, 1999;
Braine, 1999; Thomas, 1999), and the meaning of the label NNES educator and other
parties’ perceptions of NNES educators (e.g., Hansen, 2004; Inbar, 2001; J. Liu, 1999,
2004) (Kamhi-Stein, 2004).
Self-efficacy, on the other hand, has been a fresh and recent research issue in the
field of psychology and education (Bandura, 1995; Llurda, 2005; Graddol, 2007; Liu,
2009, Karimvand, 2011). Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (1995), is a person’s beliefs
in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. More precisely, it is “the belief in
one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage
prospective situations” (Bandura, 1995, p.2). The concept of self-efficacy is different from
self-perception, which is an individual’s knowledge of their own “attitudes, emotions, and
other internal states” through inference from observations of their own behaviour and/ or
the circumstances in which this behaviour occurs (Bem, 1972, p. 2). The nature of self-
efficacy is more cognitive and more concerned with expectancy beliefs about an
T
2 individual's perceived capability to perform a certain task in a very specific domain
(Bandura, 1997, cited in Mercer, 2008). In other words, self-efficacy is “a context-specific
assessment of competence to perform a specific task, a judgement of one's capabilities to
execute specific behaviours in specific situations” (Pajares and Miller, 1994, p. 194). Self-
efficacy can have an impact on everything from psychological states to behaviour to

particular, the study focuses on the self-efficacy of NNESTs and NESTs at FELTE,
ULIS, VNUH. It specifically targets self-efficacy in the educational context.
4. Methodology
i. Research questions:
1) What are the self-efficacy of NNESTs at FELTE?
2) What are the self-efficacy of NESTs at FELTE?
3) What is the relationship between the self-efficacy of these two parties in terms
of gender and teaching experience?
ii. Participants:
34 non-native English speaker teachers working in the EFL English language
teachers training (ELTT) program at VNUH and 6 native English speaker teachers
involved with ELTT program at VNUH and several other ELTT universities and colleges
in Vietnam were involved in the study.
iii. Instrumentation:
The methodology of this research is mainly quantitative. The study employs the
Teacher Efficacy Beliefs Scale – Self developed by Dellinger et al. (2008) to probe the
self-efficacy beliefs of both native English speaker teachers and non-native English
speaker teachers, and to analyse the correlation between the self-efficacy of these two
parties.
iv. Data analysis
The collected data were categorised and quantitatively analysed. Data from
questionnaires were statistically analysed to find answers to the research questions 1, 2, 3.
4 5. Significance of the study
On the basis of the statistical analyses of data, the self-efficacy of NNESTs and
NESTs will emerge, and thus be compared to existing literature. Then suggestions for
better professional development and eventually even better teaching quality at ULIS,
VNUH are proposed.


PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
his first chapter sheds light on the literature pertinent to the present study, i.e. the
theoretical background and the review of studies relevant to the topic of research.
Initially, the theoretical background will be elucidated with an explanation of key concepts,
namely “self-efficacy”, “teachers’ self-efficacy”, and the “non-native English speaker
teachers”, together with a thematically organised review of relevant studies. Then, an
overview of the teaching context at Faculty of English Language Teacher Education
(FELTE), University of Languages and International Studies (ULIS), Vietnam National
University, Hanoi (VNUH) is presented. Finally, a statement of the place and importance
of the study in relation to current literature will justify the aims and objectives of the whole
research.
1.1. Review of literature related to Self-efficacy and Teacher Self-efficacy theories
The following part provides definition of the key concepts, which contribute to the
theoretical foundation of the study, and reviews relevant literature which lays out the
conceptualisation of the concept. Information is organised thematically.
1.1.1. Definition, roles, sources, and types of self-efficacy
Definition of self-efficacy
Self-efficacy, first coined by Albert Bandura (1977) in his social cognitive theory, is
a concept in the field of psychology which refers to a person’s beliefs in his or her own
ability to succeed in a particular situation. It is “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize
and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations” (Bandura,
1995, p.2). Pajares and Miller (1994) later provided a definition which highlights the
cognitive and context specific nature of self-efficacy, which is “a context-specific
assessment of competence to perform a specific task, a judgement of one's capabilities to
T
7 individual's self-perceptions in a wider domain (for example, teaching English as a foreign
language) than is the case for self-efficacy (Mercer, 2008).
Self-efficacy should also be distinguished from “self-perception”, which is an
individual’s knowledge of their own “attitudes, emotions, and other internal states”
through inference from observations of their own behaviour and/ or the circumstances in
which this behaviour occurs (Bem, 1972, p. 2). Meanwhile, as elucidated above, self-
efficacy is “more cognitive in nature and more concerned with expectancy beliefs in an
individual's perceived capability to perform a certain task in a very specific domain”
(Bandura, 1997, cited in Mercer, 2008).
Overall, self-efficacy is consistently defined as a person’s belief, assessment, or
judgement of their own capabilities to design and carry out context-specific sequences of
actions to perform a specific task or to succeed in a particular situation (Bandura, 1977,
1986, 1995; Pajares and Miller, 1994; Pajares, 2002). The concept should be distinguished
from other related concepts such as “self-esteem”, “self-concept”, and “self-perception”.
For the purpose of this research, self-efficacy, sense of self-efficacy, or self-efficacy belief,
used interchangeably, will adopt the above definition.
The Role of Self-Efficacy in human functioning
In their lives, humans can set goals, identify desirable changes & attainment;
however, there is a big difference between identifying goals, desirable changes, and
attainment to realizing those goals, carry out changes, and accomplish tasks. Bandura and
others suggest that an individual’s sense of self-efficacy can greatly contribute to how the
person approaches goals, tasks, and challenges (Cherry, 2011). Self-efficacy beliefs can
influence thought patterns and emotions that in turn affects the amount of effort people
expend in pursuit of goals, their persistence in the face of hardship, rebound from
obstructions, and the amount of control over events that affect their lives (Bandura, 1986,
1993, 1996, 1997, cited in Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1994). Generally,
people with a strong sense of self-efficacy: view challenging problems as tasks to be
mastered; develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate; form a

they too possess the capabilities master comparable activities to succeed” (1994). The third
source of self-efficacy, verbal persuasion, pertains to the idea that people could be
persuaded to believe that they have the skills and capabilities to succeed. An individual
sense of self-efficacy tends to increase, if the person who provides verbal persuasion is
10 dependable. Physiological and emotional states constitute the last source of self-
efficacy and refers to people’s physical and affective condition in task completion,
e.g. moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels, which can affect a
person’s feeling about his/her capabilities in specific situations. For instance, feelings of
relaxation are signals of self-assurance and, therefore, enhance self-efficacy, while a
racing heart beat or high blood pressure can lead to low efficacy beliefs. However,
Bandura noted that “it is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is
important but rather how they are perceived and interpreted” (1994). Typically, self-
efficacy beliefs are enhanced by optimism and positive mood, while depression and
despair weaken them (Nolan, 2009; Cherry, 2011).
Types of Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy, though originally a psychological concept, has been touched upon by
researchers from many different fields. Four main types of self-efficacy have been
identified, namely general self-efficacy, social self-efficacy, academic self-efficacy, and
teacher self-efficacy (Self-efficacy, 2011). Below is a brief summary of the different types
of self-efficacy.
General Self-Efficacy: the global confidence in one’s coping ability across a wide
range of demanding or novel situations. This broader construct is most frequently assessed
with the General Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995).
Social Self-efficacy: an individual’s confidence in her/his ability to engage in the
social interactional tasks necessary to initiate and maintain interpersonal relationships
(Schwarzer & Knoll, 2007).
Academic Self-efficacy: a student’s belief that he or she can successfully engage in

personal factors, that allow them to exercise a measure of control over their thoughts,
feelings, and actions, that "what people think, believe, and feel affects how they behave"
(1986, p. 25, cited in Pajeras, 2002).
The triadic reciprocal causation model
12 Bandura’s social cognitive theory holds the assumption that people are capable of
human agency, or intentional pursuit of courses of action. This human agency is the
product of a dynamic interaction of personal, behavioral, and environmental influences,
resulting in a process called triadic reciprocal causation (Bandura, 1977, 1997, cited in
Henson, 2001). This means that people are the product of neither the environment
influences nor biological factors, but rather an interplay of all factors, with an emphasis on
cognition, self-reflection and self-regulation processes. The triadic reciprocal causation
model is a multi-directional model suggesting that our behaviour is caused by multiple
factors and behaviour can impact those factors reciprocally. The model, describe in the
figure below, is a function of three interrelated forces: environmental influences, our
behaviour, and internal personal factors such as cognitive, affective, and biological
processes.

Behavioral Factors

Personal Factors
(Cognitive, affective, biological processes)

According to Bandura (1977), teacher self-efficacy is a special type of self-efficacy.
Bandura (1997) referred to teacher’s self-efficacy as “the belief in one’s capability to
organize and execute courses of action required to produce given attainments”, which is
not much difference from the mother concept self-efficacy. Dellinger (2001), building
from Bandura’s definition, conceptualized teachers’ self-efficacy as “a belief system that
one has concerning his/her self-perceived capabilities to organize and execute courses of
action to acquire given levels of attainment in situation-specific teaching tasks.”
Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy (1998) in their article “Teacher Efficacy:
Its Meaning and Measure” have also made attempts to pinpoint the concept of teacher self-
efficacy, labelling it “teacher efficacy”. They build on the work of others to provide two
definitions of teacher efficacy as “the extent to which the teacher believes he or she has the
capacity to affect student performance” (Berman, et al., 1977, p. 137), or as “teachers’
belief or conviction that they can influence how well students learn, even those who may
14 be difficult or unmotivated” (Guskey & Passaro, 1994, p. 4, cited in Tschannen-Moran,
Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998).
Akbari & Moradkhani (2010) has also provided a succinct definition of teacher self-
efficacy, in which teacher self-efficacy refers to “teachers’ judgment on their abilities to
motivate students and improve their achievement.”
Schwarzer & Hallum defined teacher self-efficacy, in relation to other types of
efficacy, as “one's perceived competence to deal with all demands and challenges that are
implied in teachers' professional life” (2008).
All the definitions above accentuate the key elements of teacher self-efficacy, i.e.
“teacher’s beliefs”, “perceived capabilities”, “motivate”, “improve”, “student
performance”. For the purpose of this study, definition from Dellinger (2001) will be
adopted as it most closely reflects the theoretical foundation of the study, the social
cognitive theory and self-efficacy. With regards to terminology, all the terms teachers’
sense of efficacy, self-efficacy of teachers, instructional efficacy, teachers’ efficacy beliefs,

contextual variables can have significant influence on teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs
(Akbari & Moradkhani, 2010). For instance, if teachers have access to more resources
in the school and enjoy the support from the principal and their colleagues, they are
more likely to have stronger self-efficacy beliefs (Deemer, 2004; Hoy, & Woolfolk, 1993;
Tschanne-Moran & Hoy, 2002). Also, class size can affect teachers’ sense of efficacy
in that the larger the class teachers teach, the stronger efficacy beliefs they possess (Lee et
al., 1991; Raudenbush et al., 1992). Student gender has been found to have no effect on
teacher’s efficacy beliefs (Benjarano, 2000); however, student age has a reverse
relationship with teacher perceived efficacy, i.e. teachers are more likely to be
efficacious when they teach younger students (Tribble, 1986; Herman, 2000; Taimalu
and Õim, 2005; and Tchannen-Moran & Hoy ; 2002, cited in Akbari & Moradkhani,
2010). A noticeable case of students’ characteristics and teacher self-efficacy is reported in
Paneque & Barbetta’s study on special education teachers’ self-efficacy (2005), where
teacher who taugh English language learners with disabilities had were found to have
higher level of self-efficacy if their students had higher language proficiency level.
16 The second category, demographic factors, includes demographic variables such as
teacher’s gender, age, experience, and academic degree. The focus of this study is to
examine teacher perceived efficacy in relation to the demographic variables of age and
gender; therefore, the following sections will review in detail available literature relevant
to the issues of teacher self-efficacy and demographic factors.
1.2. Demographic factors that affect teacher self-efficacy
In reality, there are many factors or variables which can have possible effects on
teachers’ belief of their capability to succeed in a particular teaching situation. However,
for the purpose of this paper, the factors of teaching experience and gender will be looked
upon thoroughly.
1.2.1. Teacher self-efficacy and teaching experience
As previously mentioned, Bandura (1977, 1986) believes mastery experience is the

students. Some others (e.g., Cruz & Arias, 2007; Gaith & Yaghi, 1997; Hoy & Woolfolk,
1990; Taimalu & Õim, 2005; cited in Akbari & Moradkhani, 2010) intended to find
the difference between the efficacy of prospective and in-service teachers. They
concluded that as teachers enter the profession and gain more experience, their beliefs in
their ability to control disturbing factors outside the classroom context, known as general
teaching efficacy (GTE), decreases, whereas their beliefs in their own ability to teach
within the classroom context, called personal teaching efficacy (PTE) improves. Finally,
some researchers have also found no significant relationship between teachers’ years of
experience and their efficacy beliefs (e.g., Guskey, 1987).
In light of the above brief review of relevant literature, it is difficult to conclude that
there is a similar direction regarding the relationship of the two variables, teacher
perceived efficacy and teaching experience.
1.2.2. Teacher self-efficacy and gender
Gender is another demographic variable that might influence teacher’s professional
lives, in general, and their beliefs of their capabilities to succeed in specific teaching
situations, in particular. According to Karimvand (2011), social relations and the
dominance of either gender (usually male) can affect teachers’ lives. Female professionals
are usually subordinate to male authorities in educational settings where professional
18 interactions are usually characterized by marginalization of women (Bartlett, 2005; Lin et
al., 2004, cited in Karimvand, 2011). Since the social cognitive theory contends that
efficacy beliefs are constructed and reconstructed through people’s social experiences and
interactions, the impacts of unequal power dynamics existing in the field of TESOL and
resulting practises – explicit or implicit – are undeniable. Thus, examining the effects of
gender on teachers’ perceived efficacy has proved to be an important area in the TESOL
field.
However, on reviewing the studies which have focuses on the relationship between
gender and teachers' sense of efficacy, a great number of discrepancies can be seen. Imants

Students' Needs, Motivating Students, Keeping Discipline, Cooperating With Colleagues
and Parents, and Coping With Changes and Challenges. A strong 2nd-order self-efficacy
factor underlying the 6 dimensions was also found. The construct of teacher self-efficacy
was conceptually distinguished from perceived collective teacher efficacy and external
control. It was strongly related to collective teacher efficacy and teacher burnout.
Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001, cited in Cheung 2008) developed their own
Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale with 24 items, then extracted three variables, each with 8
items. These three variables are named efficacy for instructional strategies, efficacy for
classroom management and efficacy for student engagement.
Karimvand (2011), in a recent study on Iranian teachers’ self-efficacy used the
questionnaire of TEBS-Self (Teachers' Efficacy Beliefs System- Self) previously
developed by Dellinger, Bobbett, Oliver, & Ellett (2008). The scale was factored into four
components of Accommodating Individual Differences (AID), Positive Classroom Climate
(PCC), Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL), and Managing Learning Routines
(MLR). Since the factor structure used by Dellinger et al. (2008) and Karimvand (2011)
appears to encompass all other dimensions of the construct of teacher self-efficacy
employed by other researchers, it is also utilized in the current research which used the
questionnaire developed by Dellinger et al. (2008) as well.
The previous parts have laid out the theoretical foundation needed for the study.
Specifically, the key concepts, i.e. self-efficacy, teacher self-efficacy, have been defined;
20 the factors that affect those psychological constructs have been analysed; and literature
pertinent to self-efficacy and teacher self-efficacy has been reviewed. The following
section will shed light on the issue of non-native English speaker teachers and teacher
perceived efficacy.
1.4. Non-native English speaker teacher & Teacher self-efficacy
1.4.1. Non-native vs. Native English speaker teacher
The native and non-native speaker dichotomy has direct relevance and implications