General Principles of
Constitutional and
Administrative Law
Fourth Edition
John Alder
General Principles of Constitutional and Administrative Law
Palgrave Macmillan Law Masters
Series Editor Marise Cremona
Stephen Judge
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Janet Dine
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John Alder
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CONSTITUTIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
LAW (4th edn)
Ewan McKendrick
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Priscilla Sarton
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Jonathan Herring
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Debbie J. Lockton
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EVIDENCE
Kate Standley
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Summary 59
Further Reading 61
Exercises 61
Contents
v
4 The Structure of the UK Government: An Overview 62
4.1 The Informal Constitution 62
4.2 Crown v. Parliament: Historical Outline 64
4.3 The Growth of the Executive 69
4.4 The Concept of the State 70
4.5 The Legislature 74
4.6 The Central Executive 75
4.7 Parliamentary Government 77
4.8 ‘Hollowed-Out’ Government 79
4.9 Ethics in Government 81
4.10 The Judiciary 83
4.11 The Privy Council 84
4.12 Citizenship 85
4.13 Constitutional Reform 88
Summary 89
Further Reading 90
Exercises 91
5 Constitutionalism: The Rule of Law and the Separation
of Powers 92
5.1 Introduction: The Nature and Purpose of the
Rule of Law 92
5.2 The Core Meaning of the Rule of Law 94
5.3 The Extended Rule of Law 95
5.4 Dicey’s Version of the Rule of Law 97
5.5 The International Rule of Law 101

8.1 Local Authority Organisation and Functions 166
8.2 Structure and Powers 168
8.3 Control by Central Government 169
8.4 Internal Constitution 170
8.5 Party Politics 172
8.6 Finance 174
8.7 The Local Ombudsman 177
Summary 179
Further Reading 179
Exercises 180
9 The European Union 181
9.1 The Nature of the European Union 181
9.2 Community Institutions 184
9.3 Democracy and the European Union 192
9.4 Federalism and the European Union 194
9.5 Community Law and National Law 196
Summary 204
Further Reading 205
Exercises 205
Part III GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS
10 Parliament 209
10.1 Historical Development 209
10.2 The Meeting of Parliament 214
10.3 The Functions of Parliament 215
10.4 Parliamentary Privilege and Standards 220
Summary 232
Further Reading 234
Exercises 234
Contents vii
11 The Composition of Parliament and Parliamentary Elections 236

14.3 Ministers 315
14.4 Government Departments 317
14.5 Ministerial Responsibility (Barry Hough) 318
14.6 Civil Servants 329
14.7 Executive Agencies and the ‘New Management’ 334
14.8 Non-Departmental Public Bodies 337
Summary 340
Further Reading 341
Exercises 342
viii Contents
15 The Police and the Armed Forces 344
15.1 Introduction 344
15.2 Police Organisation and Control 344
15.3 Police Accountability 349
15.4 The Armed Forces 355
Summary 357
Further Reading 358
Exercises 358
Part IV THE CITIZEN AND THE STATE
16 Judicial Review of the Executive: The Grounds of Review 363
16.1 Introduction: Constitutional Basis of Judicial Review 363
16.2 Appeal and Review 366
16.3 Classification of the Grounds of Review 368
16.4 Illegality 369
16.5 Irrationality/Unreasonableness 382
16.6 Procedural Impropriety 386
Summary 398
Further Reading 400
Exercises 400
17 Judicial Review Remedies 403

20.2 Defamation 490
20.3 Breach of Confidence 502
20.4 Invasion of Privacy 503
20.5 Tensions in the Law 507
20.6 Proportionality: a Mediating Principle 508
20.7 A Hierarchy of Rights and the Contingencies of Litigation 509
Summary 510
Further Reading 510
Exercises 512
21 Police Powers of Arrest and Search (Michael Haley) 513
21.1 Introduction 513
21.2 Violation of PACE and Codes 515
21.3 Pre-Arrest Questioning 519
21.4 Stop and Search 519
21.5 Arrest 526
21.6 Search Before and Following Arrest 532
21.7 Police Searches during the Investigation of Crime 534
21.8 ‘In the Station’: an Outline 543
Summary 544
Further Reading 545
Exercises 545
22 State Secrecy 547
22.1 Voluntary Disclosure of Information 549
22.2 Statutory Rights to Information 550
22.3 The Freedom of Information Act 2000 551
22.4 Unlawful Disclosure of Government Information 555
22.5 Public Interest Immunity 561
22.6 Security and Covert Intelligence 564
Summary 571
Further Reading 572

also been important new literature including extra-judicial writings from senior
judges and dealing with the influence of the common law on the constitution.
Other developments have been disappointing. The long-awaited reform
of the House of Lords is unfinished business and the Wakeham Report raises
concerns about the dangers to democracy of a legislative chamber which in-
cludes persons hand-picked by those already in positions of power. There have
been limited reforms in local government law which have to some extent
strengthened local democracy although, characteristically the centre retains
comprehensive powers. There have been a desultory Freedom of Informa-
tion Act 2000, and increased state powers in relation to official surveillance,
police investigations and public order. Some of these were a response to the
terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre on 11 September 2001 but go well
beyond terrorism.
Preface
xi
The main standpoint of the book is that constitutional law pre-eminently
concerns the management of disagreement about the exercise of power.
As Holmes J remarked, ‘the Constitution is made for people of fundamentally
different views’ (Lochner v. New York (1905), 19 US 45 at 767). Hence, in a
democracy, the task of constitutional law is to provide mechanisms that
prevent one set of values from being permanently dominant while at the same
time trying to keep order and to adjudicate fairly between competing pre-
tenders to power.
Part I has been substantially rearranged and discusses fundamental prin-
ciples and concepts, including revised treatment of the rule of law to reflect
developments in scholarship. In particular the introductory chapters have been
recast. I have also attempted to provide an overview of the history, structure
and main concepts of the UK constitution in the hope that this will signpost
later chapters. Part II is new, in which I have brought together topics relating
to the geographical separation of powers, namely, devolution, local govern-

Abrams v. United States [1919] 250 U.S. 616, 346
Adam v. Ward [1917] AC 309 355, 491, 499
Adan v. Newham BC [2002] 1 All ER 931 373, 396,430,436
Adegbeno v. Akintola [1963] AC 614 295
A-G for Hong Kong v. Ng Yuen Shiu [1983] 2 AC 629 378
A-G for New South Wales v. Perpetual Trustee Co. Ltd [1955]
1 All ER 846 345
A-G for New South Wales v. Trethowan [1932] AC 526 133
A-G for Northern Ireland’s Reference (No. 1 of 1975) [1977] AC 105 432
A-G of Trinidad and Tobago v. Phillips [1995] 1 All ER 93 244
A-G v. Associated Newspapers Ltd. [1994] AC 238 425
A-G v. BBC [1981] AC 303 117
A-G v. Blake [1998] 1 All ER 833 559
A-G v. Crayford UDC [1962] Ch 575 370
A-G v. De Keyser’s Royal Hotel Ltd [1920] AC 508 305, 306, 308
A-G v. de Winton [1906] 2 Ch 1060 135
A-G v. English [1983] 1 AC 116 466
A-G v. Fulham Corporation [1921] 1 Ch 440 369
A-G v. Guardian Newspapers Ltd (No. 2) [1988]
3 All ER 545 425, 458, 502, 558
A-G v. Guardian Newspapers Ltd [1987] 1 WLR 1048 117, 369, 446,
466, 558
A-G v. Jonathan Cape [1975] 3 All ER 489 56, 320, 559
A-G v. Leveller Magazine Ltd [1979] AC 400 468
A-G v. News Group Newspapers [1987] AC 40 467
A-G v. News Group Newspapers [1988] 2 All ER 906 467
A-G v. Observer Ltd [1988] 1 All ER 385 466
A-G v. Punch Ltd [2001] 2 All ER 655 560
A-G v. Sport Newspapers Ltd [1992] 1 All ER 503 467
A-G v. Times Newspapers Ltd [1974] AC 273 466

Baker v. Oxford [1980] RTR 315 521
Bank Voor Handel en Scheepvaart NV. v. Administrator of Hungarian
Property [1954] AC 584 58
Barnard v. National Dock Labour Board [1953] 1 All ER 1113 387
Barrett v. Enfield Borough Council [1999] 3 All ER 193 203, 405
Bates Case [1606] 2 St. Tr. 372 300
Bath Society v. Secretary of State for the Environment [1992]
1 All ER 28 300
BBC v. Johns [1965] Ch 32 301
Beach v. Freeson [1972] 1 QB 14 226
Beatty v. Gillbanks [1882] 9 QBD 308 479-480
Bentham v. Netherlands [1985] 8 E.H.R.R. 1 363, 392, 428, 446
Berkeley v. Secretary of State for the Environment [2000]
3 All ER 897 14, 387
Berman v. Parker 348 U.S. 26 (1954).
Bilston Corporation v. Wolverhampton Corporation [1942] Ch. 391 222
Blackburn v. A-G [1971] 2 All ER 1380 130, 305, 306
Blackpool Corporation v. Locker [1948] 1 All ER 85 434
Blackshaw v. Lord [1984] QB 1 500
Boddington
v. British Transport Police [1998] 2 WLR 639 104, 365,
367, 413
Bogner Regis U.D.C. v. Campion [1972] 2 All ER 61 493
Bonnard v. Perryman 1891B4 All ER Rep 965 492
Borgers v. Belgium (1991) ECHR Ser. A 214-B 562
Bozkurt (see R. (Bozkurt))
Bowles v. Bank of England [1913] 1 Ch 57 126, 223, 276
Bowman v. Secular Society [1917] AC 406 471
Bowman v. UK (1998) 26 E.H.R.R 1 258
Bradlaugh v. Gossett (1884) 12 QBD 271 223

AC 75 28, 126, 302, 308
Buron v. Denman [1848] 2 Ex 167 298
Bushell v. Secretary of State for the Environment [1981]
AC 75 13, 333, 390
Bushell’s Case [1670] 6 St. Tr. 999 80, 87, 117
C v. S [1999] 2 All ER 343 432
Calverley v. Chief Constable of Merseyside Police [1989] AC 1228 407
Calvin v. Carr [1980] AC 574 389
Campbell v. Hall (1774) 1 Cowp 204 163
Campbell v. UK (1992) 15 E.H.R.R 137 440
Carl Zeiss Stiftung v. Rayner & Keeler Ltd (No. 2) [1967] 1 AC 853 299
Carltona Ltd
v. Commissioner for Works [1943] 2 All ER 560 56, 332
Carson v. John Fairfax and Sons Ltd (1993) 1978 CLR 44 498
Casada Coca v. Spain (1994) 18 E.H.R.R. 1 330
Case of Proclamations (1611) 12 Co Rep 74 124, 300
Castells v. Spain [1992] 14 E.H.R.R 445 463, 465, 496
Castorini v. Chief Constable of Surrey [1988] NLJ Rep 180 353
Caswell v. Dairy Produce Quota Tribunal [1990] 2 All ER 434 410
Chahal v. UK (1997) 23 EHRR 413 453
Chandler v. DPP [1964] AC 763 71, 299, 306, 355
Chapman v. DPP [1988] Crim LR 842 528, 533
Table of Cases xv
Chapman v. U.K. (2001) 10 BHRC 48 372, 373
Charge to the Bristol Grand Jury [1832] 5 C & P 261 432
Chatterton v. Secretary of State for India [1895] 2 QB 189 491
Cheall v. Apex [1983] 1 All ER 1130 391
Cheney v. Conn [1968] 1 All ER 779 94, 98
Chief Constable of North Wales Police v. Evans [1982]
3 All ER 156 293, 312, 410

Cossey v United Kingdom (1990) 13 EHRR 622 454
Costa
v. ENEL [1964] CMLR 425 198
Costello-Roberts v. U.K. [1995] 19 E.H.R.R. 112 428
Council of Civil Service Unions (CCSU) v. Minister for the
Civil Service [1985] AC 374 71, 303, 305, 306, 364,
365, 378,382, 386, 390
Coventry (see R v. Coventry)
Credit Suisse v. Allerdale B.C. [1996] 2 All ER 129 366, 367, 410
CREEDNZ Inc v. Governor-General [1981] 1 NZLR 172 300, 376
D v. NSPCC [1978] AC 171 71
D’Souza v. DPP [1992] 4 All ER 545 532
Dallison v. Caffrey [1965] 1 QB 348 532
xvi Table of Cases
Daly (see R v. Secretary of State for the Home Department)
Davies v. Snead (1870) LR 5 QB 608 492
Dawkins v. Lord Paulet [1869] LR 5 QBD 94 356
Dawkins v. Lord Rokeby [1866] 4 F & F 806 491
Day v. Savidge [1615] Hobart 85 125
De Freitas v. Permanent Secretary [1999] 1 A.C. 69 385
De Jager v. AG [1907] AC 326 65
De Morgan v. Director General of Social Welfare [1998] AC 275 306
Defrenne v. SABENA (No. 2) [1976] ECR 455 200
Derbyshire County Council v. Times Newspapers [1993]
1 All ER 1011 117, 425, 426, 458,
463, 493-496
Dimes v. Grand Junction Canal Co. [1852] 3 HLC 759 87, 393
Director General of Fair Trading v. Proprietary Association of
Great Britain, Times Oct. 4 2001 439
Donoghue (see Poplar)

Edwards v. Bairstow [1956] AC 14 373
Edwards v. DPP (1993) 97 Cr App Rep 301 531
Edwards v. South Carolina 372 U.S. 279 (1963) 374, 475
Ellen Street Estates Ltd v. Minister of Health (1934) 1 KB 590 127
Table of Cases xvii
Elmbridge BC v Secretary of State for the Environment [2002]
Envir. LR 1 392
Enever v. R (1906) 3 CLR 969 345
Engelke v. Musman [1928] AC 433 299
Entick v. Carrington (1765) 19 St. Tr 1029 26, 28, 68, 93, 100, 104, 424
Equal Opportunities Commission v. Employment Secretary [1994]
1 All ER 910 199
Everson v. Board of Education 330 U.S. 1 1947 188
Ex parte Anderson (1861) 3 E & E 487 161
Ex parte Brown (1864) 33 LJ QB 193 161
Ex parte Canon Selwyn (1872) 36 JP 54 131
Ex parte Gilmore, see R. v. Medical Appeal Tribunal
Ex parte Kynoch [1919] 1 KB 176 301
Ex parte Wason (1869) LR 4 QB 573 491
Ezelin v. France (1992) 4 E.H.R.R. 362 481
Faccini Dori v. Recreb [1995] CMLR 665 200
Factortame v. Secretary of State for Transport [No. 2] [1991]
1 All ER 70 136, 199, 203
Farrell v. Secretary of State for Defence [1980] 1 All ER 66 432
Fayed v. U.K. [1994] 18 EHHR 393 493
Felton v. Callis [1969] 1 QB 200 302
Findlay v. United Kingdom (1997) 24 EHHR 221 430
Finnegan v. Clowney Youth Training Programme [1990] 2 AC 407 202
Fisher v. Oldham Corporation [1930] 2 KB 364 345
Fitzpatrick v. Sterling Housing Association [1999] 4 All ER 705 43

[2001] 4 All ER 781 420, 432, 433,447,450
Gouriet v. UPOW [1978] AC 435 114, 306, 414
Grand Duchy of Luxembourg v. Parliament [1983] 2 CMLR 729 188
Grant v. Gould [1792] 2 H B1 69 355, 356
Grau Gromis, Criminal Proceedings, Case Against [1995]
All ER (EC) 688 189
Grieve v. Douglas-Home [1965] SC 315 259
Grobbelaar v. News Group Newspapers [2001] 2 All ER 437 492
Gunn-Russo v. Nugent Care Society [2001] EWHC Admin 566 437, 548
Guerra v. Italy (1999) 4 BHRC 53 420
Halford v. UK [1997] IRLR 471 570
Hall v. Hall [1944] 88 Sol J 383 128
Hall v. Shoreham Urban District Council [1964] 1 All ER 1 302, 382
Hamilton v. Al Fayed [1999] 3 All ER 317 221, 224
Hammersmith and Fulham LBC v. Secretary of State for
the Environment [1990] 3 All ER 14 175, 383, 390
Hannam v. Bradford Corporation [1970] 2 All ER 690 394
Handyside v. U.K. [1976] 1 E.H.R.R 737 446, 449, 454, 468, 470, 483, 509
Harper v. Haden [1933] 1 Ch 298 375
Harper v. Home Secretary [1955] Ch 238 257
Harris v. Minister of the Interior [1952] (2) SA 428 133
Harris v. Sheffield United Football Club [1988] QB 77 480
Harrison v. Duke of Rutland [1893] 1 QB 147 475
Hashman and Harrup v. U.K. (1999) 30 E.H.R.R. 241 485
Hazell v. Hammersmith and Fulham London Borough Council
[1992] 2 AC 1 175, 370
Hector v. A-G of Antigua and Bermuda [1990] 2 All ER 103 367, 463
Helle v. Finland [1997] 26 E.H.R.R 159 397
Hellewell v. Chief Constable of Derbyshire [1995] 4 All ER 473 558
Henn and Darby v. DPP [1980] 2 WLR 597 191

Jersild v. Denmark [1994] The Times, 20th October 454, 463, 465, 473
J.H. Ltd v. U.K. (2001) The Times, 19 October 570
John v. Express Newspapers Ltd [2000] 3 All ER 257 561
John v. Mirror Group Newspapers [1996] 3 WLR 593 498–499
John v. Rees [1969] 2 All ER 274 390
Johnston v. Chief Constable of Royal Ulster Constabulary
[1986] ECR 1651 203
Johnston v. Ireland (1996) ECHR Ser. A vol. 112 453
Johnstone v. Pedlar [1921] 2 AC 262 298
Jordon v. Burgoyne [1963] 2 QB 744 482
Joyce v. DPP [1946] AC 347 299
JT’s Corporation v. Commission, The Times, 18 Oct. 2000 194
.
Kane v. New Forest District Council [2001] 3 All ER 914 406
Kawahaja v. Secretary of State for the Home Affairs [1983]
1 All ER 765 373
Kaye v. Robertson [1991] FSR 62 503
Keighley v. Bell [1866] 4 F & F 763 356
Kenlin v. Gardiner [1967] 2 QB 510 519
Khan v
. UK [2000] 8 BHRC 310 517
Kirklees MBC v. Wickes Building Supplies Ltd [1992]
3 All ER 717 203
Klass v. Federal Republic of Germany [1978]
2 E.H.R.R 214 93, 439, 446, 448, 565, 566, 568
Knuller v. DPP [1973] AC 435 468
Kodeeswaren v. A-G for Ceylon [1970] AC 1111 329
Kokkinakis v. Greece [1993] The Times, 11th June 340
Kostovski v. the Netherlands (1989) ECHR Ser. A vol. 166 562
Kroon v. Netherlands (1994) A 297 443

Lonrho v. Secretary of State for Trade and Industry [1989]
2 All ER 609 398
Lonrho v. Tebbit [1992] 4 All ER 280 414
Lord Advocate v. Dumbarton District Council [1990] 2 AC 580 298
Lord Advocate v. Scotsman Publications [1990] 1 AC 812 557, 560
Luke (Lord) v. Minister of Housing and Local Government
[1968] 1 Q.B. 172. 372
Lunt v. DPP [1993] Crim LR 534 542
Lynch v. Ministry of Defence [1983] NILR 216 432
M v. Home Office [1993] 3 All ER 537 72, 77, 115, 197, 291,
297, 404
MaCarthy and Stone Ltd
v. Richmond LBC [1991]
4 All ER 897 175, 301, 370
MacCarthys Ltd v. Smith [1979] 3 All ER 325 136, 191, 199
MacCormick v. Lord Advocate [1953] SC 369 126, 131
Maclaine-Watson v. DTI [1988] 3 All ER 257 117
Mahon v. Air New Zealand [1984] 3 All ER 271 392
Makanjuola v. Metropolitan Police Commissioner [1992] 3 All ER 617 562
Malone v. Metropolitan Police Commissioner [1979] Ch 344 503
Malone v. U.K. [1984] 7 E.H.R.R 14 566
Mandla v. Dowell-Lee [1983] 1 All ER 1062 474
Manuel v. A-G [1982] 3 All ER 786 (Megarry J.), [1983]
3 All ER 822 (C.A.) 125, 126, 128, 129, 131
Marbury v. Madison 5 U.S. 137 [1803] 42, 139, 198
Table of Cases xxi
Marcic v. Thames Water Utilities Ltd No. 2 [2001] 4 All ER 326 440
Marckx v. Belgium [1979] 2 E.H.R.R. 330 432, 448, 454
Marleasing SA v. La Commercial International de
Alimentacion SA [1992] 1 CMLR 305 202

Mighell v. Sultan of Johore [1894] 1 QB 949 299
Minister of Home Affairs v. Fisher [1980] AC 319 338
Mohammed-Holgate v. Duke [1984] AC 437 529
Monson v. Tussauds Ltd [1894] 1 QB 671 493
Morgan v. Tate and Lyle Ltd [1955] AC 21 203
Morris v. UK [2002] ECHR App. No. 38784/97 356
Mortensen
v. Peters [1906] 14 SLT 227 126
Moss v. McLachlan [1985] IRLR 76 479
Muller v. Switzerland [1988] 469, 470
Murgatroyd v. Chief Constable of the West Yorkshire Police,
17 March 2000, 8 Nov. 2000 (unreported) C.A. 532
Murphy v. Brentford District Council [1991] 1 AC 398 406
Murphy v. Oxford [1985] unreported (CA) 531
Murray v. Ministry of Defence [1988] 2 All ER 521 530
Murray v. Parkes [1942] 1 All ER 558 117
Murray v. United Kingdom (1994) 19 EHRR 93 5 20
xxii Table of Cases
Murray v. U.K. [1996] 22 EHHR 29 451, 518
Mustasa v. A-G [1980] QB 114 64
Nelms v. Roe [1969] 3 All ER 1379 388
New South Wales v. Bardolph [1934] 52 CLR 455 239
New York Times v. Sullivan 376 U.S. 254 (1964) 494, 507
New York Times v. U.S.A. 403 U.S. 713 (1971) 419
Newcastle Breweries v. R [1920] KB 854 433
Newport BC v. Secretary of State for Wales [1998] 1 PLR 47 20
Nicholas v. Parsonage [1987] RTR 199 529, 530
Nichols v. Bulman [1985] RTR 236 526
Nissan v. A-G [1970] AC 179 298
Norwest Holst v. Trade Secretary [1978] Ch 201 306, 390

Pickwell v. Camden B.C. [1983] QB 962 177, 375
Piddington v. Bates [1960] 3 All ER 660 479
Piersen v. Secretary of State for the Home Department [1997]
3 All ER 577 33, 97, 138, 365, 370, 424, 425
Pinochet Re, see R. v. Bow Street Stipendary Magistrate
ex parte Pinochet (No. 2)
Table of Cases xxiii
Plange v. Chief Constable of South Humberside The Times,
3rd March 1992 528
Plattform ‘Arzte Fur Das Leben’ v. Austria [1988]
13 EHHR 204 464, 475, 483
Plessey v. Ferguson 163 U.S. 537 (1896) 42
Police v. Reid [1987] Crim LR 702 477
Pollard v. Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police
28 April 1998 (unreported ) 532
Poplar Housing and Regeneration Community
Association Ltd v. Donoghue, [2001] 4 All ER 604 412, 434, 436,
441, 443, 450
Porter v. Magill [2002] 1 All ER 465 395, 429
Prebble v. Television New Zealand [1995] 1AC 321 226
Prescott v. Birmingham Corporation [1955] Ch 210 176, 376
Preston v. IRC [1985] 2 All ER 327 378
Prince’s Case (1606) 8 Co. Rep. 1 128
Prohibitions del Roy (1607) 12 Co. Rep. 63 64, 304
Provident Mutual Life v. Derby Corporation [1981] 1 WLR 173 388
Pubblico Ministero v. Ratti [1979] ECR 1629 154
Pulhoffer v. Hillingdon BC [1986] AC 484 372
Purcell v. Ireland (1991) ECHR Appl. No. 15404/89 453
Quietlynn Ltd v. Southend-on-Sea BC [1991] 1 QB 454 471
R. v. A [2001] 3 All ER 1 436, 437, 450