HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT REVIEW
2003
EDUCATION, EMPLOYMENT AND SKILLS IN SOUTH AFRICA
HUMAN SCIENCES RESEARCH COUNCILFree download from www.hsrc
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© 2003 Human Sciences Research Council
Compiled by the Research Programme on Human Resources Development, Human Sciences Research Council
General Editors: Andre Kraak and Helene Perold
Published by HSRC Press
Private Bag X9182, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa
www.hsrcpublishers.ac.za
Published in the United States of America by
Michigan State University Press
East Lansing, Michigan 48823-5202
Distributed in Africa by Blue Weaver Marketing and Distribution,
PO Box 30370, Tokai, Cape Town, 7966, South Africa.
Tel: +27 +21-701-4477
Fax: +27 +21-701-7302
e-mail:
First published 2003
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.

CONTEXT
2 Overview of the South African Economy 32
Anna McCord
3 Overview of Industrial Policy 64
Miriam Altman and Marina Mayer
4 The Skills Requirements of Specific Economic Sectors 86
Pundy Pillay
5 Employment and Labour Market Trends 112
Anna McCord and Haroon Bhorat
6 The Informal Economy 142
Richard Devey, Caroline Skinner and Imraan Valodia
7 The Social and Human Development Context 164
Debbie Budlender
8 The Impact of HIV/AIDS 186
Jocelyn Vass
9 Science Policy Indicators 208
Nelius Boshoff and Johann Mouton
10 Skills Migration 234
Tracy Bailey
11 International Benchmarks 256
Debbie BudlenderFree download from www.hsrc
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David R Walwyn
26 Managers 610
Frank M Horwitz and Angus Bowmaker-Falconer
27 ICT and Associated Professionals 634
Percy Moleke, Andrew Paterson and Joan Roodt
28 HRD and the Skills Crisis 660
Andre Kraak
Index 688Free download from www.hsrc
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PREFACE
This Review is the outcome of a flagship project of the Research Programme on Human Resources
Development (HRD) at the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), and was funded by the
Department of Science and Technology (DST). The programmes core focus is to analyse the pathways
of learners from the schooling system into further and higher education and the world of work. More
specifically, the programme:
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conducts research on the supply side that examines the provision of public and private post-
school education and training, particularly in the further and higher education bands;
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conducts research on the demand side that examines the characteristics of those skills that are in
demand, those in short supply, and those that will be needed in the future;
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PREFACE
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Conception of HRD
The key thesis underlying the project is that HRD is a cross-sectoral policy issue that is shaped by,
and impacts on, a multitude of government policy domains such as education and training, the
labour market, and macroeconomic, industrial and foreign trade policies. When combined or joined
up in an interlocking and self-reinforcing way, the basket of government policies yields the appropriate
human and technological capability necessary for future national economic success. Human resources
development is thus the glue that helps to develop and sustain successful economic systems.
This approach is underpinned by the necessity for education reforms to interlock and join up with
macroeconomic, industrial and labour market reforms so that their combined impact has a better
chance of meeting the new conditions for global competitiveness  the attainment of high-quality
manufacture through a highly skilled and highly productive workforce. This view of HRD policy and
planning sees educational reform as constituting one component of a necessarily larger set of socio-
economic reforms. It posits the view that the attainment of successful reform in one institutional
sphere (such as education) is conditional on parallel changes occurring in other institutional spheres
(for example, in the macroeconomic, labour market and work organisation environments).
Effective HRD planning, particularly the co-ordination of all its cross-sectoral dynamics, is a key
condition for economic success. This central proposition is asserted throughout the Review and is
supported by four key assumptions:
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The increased primacy of education and training: One of the central implications of globalisation
is the increased importance of education and training, particularly given the demands for higher
levels of multi-functional skill competencies distributed across the entire workforce. Improved
education and training is a critical pre-requisite for successful participation in the rapidly globalising

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clustering. Employment patterns will shift away from declining sectors towards these new growth
points. The occupational structure will change as new skill requirements arise at both the high-
and low-skill ends of the spectrum.
Enormous pressure will be exerted on further and higher education institutions during this period to
respond to these new skill demands. Planners in government will need to measure the cross-sectoral
impact of all these shifts. It is here that the development of a cross-sectoral management information
system will be of greatest value  a multifaceted data warehouse that combines information on both
the demand and supply sides in order to highlight and measure the extent to which governments
industrial and employment objectives have been met. Such a multifaceted data warehouse will also
indicate whether equivalent changes have occurred on the supply side  that is, whether education
and training institutions have responded to changes in the economy and labour market.
It is the governments role to co-ordinate the key interlocking cross-sectoral policies and plan a
national HRD strategy. However, government does not possess the necessary management information
capability to develop and carry out this planning and co-ordination on its own. The aim of the HSRCs
biennial HRD review and data warehouse project, then, is to assist government in acquiring these
critical HRD policy requirements. Through this Review and the Data Warehouse, the innovative
contribution of the HSRC and its research partners thus resides in:
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developing a multi-faceted, cross-sectoral data warehouse which provides easy access to a
comprehensive set of data on the demand and supply sides of the HRD equation;
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combining databases that are currently maintained separately  specifically those describing
education and training, and labour-market and employment conditions;
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conducting new qualitative and theoretical research that interrogates the quantitative data,
yielding a richer reading of HRD conditions at the macro, meso and micro levels;
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In conclusion, then, the project is a comprehensive attempt to describe and measure the complex,
inter-related social conditions that characterise South Africa. The book and the Data Warehouse,
through the evidence they present, also identify certain critical joined-up policy requirements that are
essential for the future success of governments HRD Strategy.
Andre Kraak and Helene Perold
General Editors
Note
1
Kraak, A (2004) An Overview of South African Human Resources Development: The Importance of Joined-Up Policy Co-ordination and
Implementation, Human Sciences Research Council, Cape Town: HSRC PressFree download from www.hsrc
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authorship of this Review is institutional and therefore collective, and requires the acknowledgement
of the people who spent many weeks and months working on this project.
The Department of Science and Technology
At the outset we pay tribute to the Department of Science and Technology, whose generous ring-
fenced grant for the period 2001 to 2003 has enabled us to produce a comprehensive and high-
quality product.
The project team
We would like to acknowledge and thank our highly capable project team who made the Human
Resources Development Review 2003 and Data Warehouse website a reality: They are:
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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Reviewers
The following senior academics and government policy experts are thanked for undertaking the
demanding peer review of 28 chapters in a very short space of time:
External reviewers
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David Ashton, Professor of Sociology and Director of the Centre for Labour Market Studies,
Leicester University
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Haroon Bhorat, Director of the Development Policy Research Unit (DPRU) based at the School of
Economics, University of Cape Town
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Adrienne Bird, Deputy Director-General, Department of Labour
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Ian Bunting, Director of Planning, Higher Education branch of the national Department of Education
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Trevor Coombe, formerly Deputy Director-General, Department of Education, Pretoria, and currently
an education consultant
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Adeline du Toit, Professor and Head of Department of Information Studies, Rand Afrikaans
University
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Hugh Lauder, Professor of Education, Bath University
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Ian Macun, Director, Skills Development Planning Unit, Department of Labour
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GLOSSARY
Black.This term includes African, coloured and Indian South Africans.
Homeland. An area designated under the apartheid system as a self-governing territory for differing
categories of Africans, defined largely by race. Some of these territories were later decreed as so-called
independendent states. These included the former Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei.
Indian. This term designates one of the population groups in South Africa and includes all Asians.
Learner. The term learner is now widely used in South Africa, specifically in Education Department
legislation and policy documents, in preference to student, to reflect a more active, inclusive and
lifelong process of learning.
Educators refer to any person who teaches, educates or trains other people at an education institution.
The term is used in preference to the more traditional teacher to broaden the scope of activities
involving people engaged in some form of education of others.
Education programmes refer to different types of education provision, e.g. early childhood development,
adult basic education and training, primary and secondary schooling, further education and training,
and higher education (Chapter 12).
Endorsement is the minimum condition for entry to a degree programme at a university. Learners
who pass the Senior Certificate Examination with endorsement are qualified to enter university. The
conditions for a Senior Certificate with endorsement are established by the South African Universities
Vice-Chancellors Association (SAUVCA) (Chapter 15).
Establishment posts in FET colleges are posts paid for by the provincial education authorities
(Chapter 14).
A Further Education and Training College refers to a college which provides further education and
training on the basis of full-time, part-time or distance provision, and which is (a) established or
regarded as having been established as a public further education and training institution under the

Higher education. A level of educational provision defined by the National Qualifications Framework
(NQF) in South Africa as including all qualifications from Level 5 to Level 8 on the NQF. Defined
differently, higher education includes all education programmes at the post-school, pre-degree level,
including certificates, diplomas and higher diplomas (Level 5 programmes), as well as all undergraduate
degree and postgraduate degree programmes, from bachelor degrees to the doctoral level (Level 6-8
programmes).
Historically advantaged institutions. This term refers to institutions that, under apartheid, were
designated to serve white students, preserving the socio-economic domination of the white population.
These institutions enjoyed relative advantage through preferential resource allocation, and better
facilities, infrastructure and access to developmental opportunities (Chapter 15).
Historically disadvantaged institutions. This term refers to institutions that, under apartheid, were
designated to serve the various ethnic groups of the black (African, Indian and coloured) population
through a restricted range of teaching programmes and very limited research, thereby ensuring the
socio-economic subservience of the black population. They consequently suffered various disadvantages
with regard to funding, location, facilities and developmental opportunities (Chapter 15).
Internal labour markets are located within specific enterprises. In these markets, jobs are usually
filled by internal promotion, and skills are acquired internally rather than through the acquisition and
possession of externally recognised qualifications (Chapters 1 and 28).
Junior teaching staff in further education institutions are defined as lecturers and senior lecturers
(post levels 1 and 2). Non-teaching staff refers to staff appointed to provide administrative and
support services to the institution (Chapter 14).
Learnerships. Learnerships are aimed at providing workplace learning in a structured and systematic
form through the provision of both formalised learning and structured work experience. Learnership
contracts are signed in a three-way agreement between the employer, education and training provider,
and learner (Chapter 1).
Lekgotla. A Setswana word referring traditionally to a gathering of the (male) elders. Today it is widely
used in South Africa to refer to a strategic planning session, often at a retreat away from work
(Chapter 1).
NATED 191. An official government policy document that spells out the norms and standards defining
public FET (technical) college curricula.

are social categories that scientists would prefer not to employ, but because they still have very
powerful salience in shaping social life in South Africa, most social analyses still require their usage.
Relative Education Qualification Value (REQV) refers to a qualification grouping of teaching staff.
For example, all honours, masters and doctoral degrees have a REQV level of 15 and above. Higher
diplomas and bachelors degrees have a REQV level of 14. All diplomas are at REQV level 13.
Educators are considered to be unqualified or underqualified if they have a qualification resulting in
REQV level 10, 11 or 12 (Chapter 21).
Senior teaching staff at FET colleges are defined as heads of department, vice-principals and principals
(post levels 3, 4 and 5) (Chapter 14).
Learner/educator ratio describes the average number of learners per educator in the school system.
The ratio is calculated by dividing the total enrolment of learners by the total teaching staff.
Special purpose historically disadvantaged universities comprise MEDUNSA and Vista University
(Chapter 15).
Throughput rates as defined at higher education institutions. Throughput rates in higher education
are defined institutionally as: the total number of students who graduate from a higher education
institution each year, as a percentage of the total number of students enrolled in that institution.
Throughput rates as defined in technical colleges refer to the number of learners who enrol at the
beginning of an education programme and who pass the examination at the end of the year. The
throughput rate is distinct from the pass rate, which is defined as the number of learners who pass
an examination expressed as a percentage of the total number of learners who qualify to write the
examination, and who actually write the examination. For example: A programme has 100 learners
who enrol in February at the start of the academic year. Ten drop out during the year. At the time of
the examination (usually in October/November of each year), 90 learners qualify to write, and 45
learners pass. The pass rate is therefore 50 per cent, but the throughput rate is 45 per cent  a lower
statistic reflecting the drop-out factor.
Tradables are goods that can be exported. In the context of industrial and trade policy, the term
refers to manufactured goods. In the broader economy it includes primary products (i.e. agriculture
and minerals) and, more recently, services (Chapter 3).
Wage goods are staple goods such as food, clothing and housing (Chapter 3).


Table 10 Trends in consolidated national and provincial social service spending by sector,
1998/99-2004/05 (MTEF projection for 2004/05) (R million) 54
Table 11 Provincial social service expenditure by sector (nominal),
1997/98-2003/04 (MTEF projection for 2003/04) (R billion) 55
Table 12 Provincial education expenditure, 1997/98-2003/04 (MTEF projection for
2003/04) (R billion) 56
Figure 1 CPIX and real growth in GDP, 1996/97-2001/02 40
Figure 2 Gross capital formation in 1995 prices 41
Figure 3 Change in composition of gross capital formation, 1994-2001 42
Figure 4 Net foreign direct investment flows, 1993-2000 (R million) 43
Figure 5 Budget deficit as percentage of GDP, 1996/97-2004/05 (MTEF projection for
2004/05) (R million) 48
Figure 6 Government expenditure and real and nominal growth, 1996/97-2004/05
(MTEF projection for 2004/05)(R million) 48Free download from www.hsrc
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Figure 7 Consolidated national and provincial expenditure by service, 2004/05 MTEF projection 51
Figure 8 Consolidated national and provincial social service expenditure by sector,
2004/05 MTEF projection 53
Figure 9 Social service expenditure (nominal), 1997/98-2003/04 (MTEF projection for
2003/04)(R billion) 55
Figure 10 Sectoral shares of provincial expenditure, 2001/02 56


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Chapter 5 Employment and Labour Market Trends
Table 1 Private and public sector employment growth, 1995-2001 119
Table 2 Sectoral employment totals, 1995 and 2001 120
Table 3 Dominant employment sectors by percentage share of total employment,
1995 and 2001 120
Table 4 Tertiary employment growth by race, 1995-1999 124
Table 5 Narrow and broad unemployment in South Africa by location and gender, 2001 126
Table 6 Broad unemployment by race, location and gender, 2001 126
Table 7 Median monthly wage by race, 1995 129
Table 8 Median monthly wage by education level, 1995 129
Table 9 Median monthly wage by sector, 1995 130
Table 10 Median monthly wage by occupation and race, 1995 131
Table 11 International comparison of wage differentials 133
Figure 1 Total, formal and informal sector employment, 1996-2001 118
Figure 2 Share of employment by sector, 2001 120
Figure 3 Changes in employment by occupation, 1995-1999 122
Figure 4 Percentage change in employment and economically active
population (EAP) by race, 1995-1999 122
Figure 5 Percentage change in employment and economically active
population (EAP) by gender, 1995-1999 122
Figure 6 Percentage change in employment and economically active

Table 15 Occupations in the informal economy by education, 2001 156
Table 16 Ability to write and read in the formal and informal economy, 2001 156
Table 17 Mean time use for formal and informal workers, 2000 157
Table 18 Informal workers: Mean time use by gender, 2000 158
Figure 1 Histogram of formal workers by income level, 2001 150
Figure 2 Histogram of informal workers by income level, 2001 151
Figure 3 Proportion of African and white workers in the informal economy
by income level, 2001 152
Figure 4 Histogram of male informal workers by income level, 2001 152
Figure 5 Histogram of female informal workers by income level, 2001 152
Chapter 7 The Social and Human Development Context
Table 1 Poverty rates for TBVC areas and for South Africa as a whole, 1993 166
Table 2 Estimated South African population by province and gender, 2002 167
Table 3 South African population by province and race, 1996 168
Table 4 Percentage of the population which was urban, 1996 168
Table 5 Percentage race distribution of urban and non-urban population, 1996 168
Table 6 Provincial poverty rates by percentage, 1995 172
Table 7 Percentage race distribution by employment status and gender, September 2001 174
Table 8 Percentage of households with access to services, 1995-2000 177
Table 9 Percentage of urban and non-urban households with access to services, 2000 178
Table 10 Percentage distribution of women and men aged 25+ years by race
and highest level of education, 2001 182
Figure 1 South African population pyramid, 1990 and 2010 169
Figure 2 The waves of the AIDS epidemic (no-change scenario), 1990-2025 170
Chapter 8 The Impact of HIV/AIDS
Table 1 Projected life expectancy at birth, 1999-2010 191
Table 2 Projected changes in the size of the labour force, 2000-2015 191
Figure 1 HIV prevalence rate by gender and age group, 2000 (no-change scenario) 191
Figure 2 Percentage of HIV infection rates by main economic sector, 2000-2015 194
Figure 3 AIDS deaths per 100 workers in main economic sectors, 2000-2015 195

Figure 2 Total scientific output, 1991-2000 218
Figure 3 Scientific publications by race, 1990-2000 220
Figure 4 Scientific publications by age cohort, 1990-2000 220
Figure 5 R&D expenditure in the higher education sector including estimated labour costs,
1996-2000 (R billion) 222
Figure 6 Research expenditure in the business sector, 1983-1997 (nominal R million) 223
Figure 7 Sources of R&D funding in 2000/01 in the science council sector (R thousand) 223
Figure 8 Distribution of military R&D expenditure in South Africa, 1980-2002 (R million) 225
Figure 9 R&D personnel and researchers per 1 000 members of the labour force, 1998 226
Figure 10 Headcount of instruction/research professionals at universities and technikons,
1985-2000 226
Figure 11 Racial distribution of instruction/research personnel at universities and technikons,
1990-2000 227
Figure 12 Gender distribution of research/instructional personnel at universities and technikons,
1985-2000 227
Figure 13 R&D personnel in the business sector (FTEs), 1983/84-1997/98 228
Figure 14 R&D personnel in the government sector (FTEs), 1983/84-1997/98 228
Figure 15 Masters and doctoral enrolments at universities, 1985-2000 229
Figure 16 University postgraduate enrolments in the natural and human sciences,
1995 and 2000 230Free download from www.hsrc
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estimated actual to 2004/05 (R thousand) 289
Table 6 MTEF spending estimates for provincial public schools by province,
2001/02 actual to 2004/05 (R thousand) 290
Table 7 Per capita spending in public schools by province, 2001/02-2003/04
(Rand values) 291Free download from www.hsrc
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Table 8 Average per learner allocation on the norms and standards for 2000 and 2001
(Rand values) 291
Table 9 MTEF estimates for technical colleges by province, 2001/02-2004/05 (R thousand) 294
Table 10 The average funding level of the SAPSE subsidy formula for universities by year,
1986-2002 296
Table 11 MTEF estimates for the national education budget, 2001/02-2004/05 (R thousand) 297
Table 12 Projected spending on the NSFAS, 2001/02-2004/05 (R million) 297
Figure 1 Real average annual growth of actual technical college spending for selected
provinces,1997/98-2000/01 293
Figure 2 Real year-on-year growth of actual higher education spending, 1997/98-2000/01 295
Chapter 13 Public Schooling
Table 1 Number of learners and growth rates in ordinary public schools,
1975, 1985, 1997 and 2000 305
Table 2 Learner enrolment by race, 1975, 1985 and 1994 305
Table 3 Learner enrolment by former departments in 1994, proportion of learners

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Table 20 Number of SCE candidates who wrote and passed in total, number of
higher grade candidates passing, and pass rate, 1997, 1999 and 2001 321
Figure 1 Percentage of learners by race in each province, 1994 307
Chapter 14 Public Further Education and Training Colleges
Table 1 Technical college enrolments, 1991 330
Table 2 Enrolments by gender and race (percentage), 1990 and 2000 331
Table 3 Number of colleges by province, 1998 and 2000 331
Table 4 Pass rates (percentage) by vocational field for FTE enrolments by N-level, 2000 339
Figure 1 Colleges by size, 1998 and 2000 332
Figure 2 Merged colleges by number of campuses, 2000 332
Figure 3 College FTE enrolments at post-N3 level compared with total
enrolments in higher education, 2000 333
Figure 4 Total full-time equivalents enrolled in colleges by province, 2000 333
Figure 5 Participation rates by province, 2000 333
Figure 6 Growth in full-time equivalents, 1998-2000 334
Figure 7 Growth in full-time equivalents for both DoE and non-DoE programmes
by vocational field, 1998-2000 335
Figure 8 Growth of FTE enrolments for non-DoE programmes, 1998-2001 335
Figure 9 Percentage enrolments by programme area, 2000 337
Figure 10 FET and post-N3 level enrolments by programme area for DoE programmes, 2000 338
Figure 11 FET pass rates by province, 2000 339
Figure 12 Lowest and highest institutional pass rates by province, 2000 339

Figure 1 Typical average annual outflow from school system, 2000-2002 359
Figure 2 Typical average annual flows into public higher education, 2000-2002 359
Figure 3 Typical average annual outflows from higher education, 2000-2001 360
Figure 4 Gross participation rates in public higher education, 1993 and 2000 361
Figure 5 Overall public university and technikon headcount enrolments,
various years, 1988-2002 362
Figure 6 University and technikon headcount enrolments by institution type,
various years, 1988-2002 363
Figure 7 Overall headcount enrolments by race, various years, 1988-2002 365
Figure 8 University graduations by CESM group, various years, 1995-2001 370
Chapter 16 Independent Schooling
Table 1 Independent schooling enrolments by race group, 1987-1990 385
Table 2 Independent schools survey responses by province, 2002 386
Table 3 Comparison of independent schooling enrolments and selected statistics
between the DoE and HSRC surveys, 2001 and 2002 386
Table 4 Cross-tabulation between size of schools and annual school-fee category, 2002 387
Table 5 Cross-tabulation between annual school-fee category and schools classified
by the predominant race group enrolled, 2002 388
Table 6 Registration of additional independent schools per annum by annual school-fee
category, 1990-2001 389
Table 7 Gender ratios for public and independent schools by province, 2001 and 2002 390
Table 8 Racial integration at Grade 12 level in public schools, 2001 391
Table 9 Racial integration at Grade 12 level in independent schools, 2002 391
Table 10 Educator/learner ratios for public and independent schools by province,
2001 and 2002 392
Table 11 Grade 12 learner participation rates in mathematics and physical science
for public and independent schools, 2001 and 2002 393
Table 12 Senior Certificate Examination pass rates for public and independent schools, 2001 393
Figure 1 Registration of additional independent schools per annum by annual school-fee
category, 1990-2001 389

Figure 11 Demographic profile per staffing category in private FET institutions, 2002 408
Figure 12 Comparison of race profile of teaching staff at private FET, public FET 409
and higher education institutions, selected years
Figure 13 Gender distribution of staff by employment category at private FET institutions, 2002 409
Figure 14 Programmes offered at private FET institutions by SAQA field, 2002 410
Figure 15 Programmes offered at private FET institutions by duration, 2002 411
Chapter 18 Private Higher Education and Training
Table 1 Headcount enrolments in 86 private higher education institutions
by certificating institution, 2001 421
Table 2 Headcount enrolments in 86 local and transnational private higher education
institutions by NQF level and certificating institution, 2001 422
Table 3 Headcount enrolments in 86 local and transnational private higher education
institutions by NQF field and certificating institution, 2001 424
Figure 1 Proportion of headcount enrolments in 86 private and public higher education
institutions by race and institution type, 2000 and 2001 426Free download from www.hsrc
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Chapter 19 Enterprise Training
Table 1 Enterprise training, 1986-1998 437
Table 2 Distribution of private sector enterprises by enterprise size and employment, 1997 440
Table 3 Measures of progress against key NSDS success indicators, 2002-2003 443
Table 4 Aggregate training rates, 2000-2002 445

qualifications and age, 1999 (monthly salary in rands) 486Free download from www.hsrc
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Figure 2 Percentage of educators leaving and joining the profession, by REQV,
1998 and 1999 488
Figure 3 Age distribution of educators leaving, joining and staying in the profession,
1998 and 1999 489
Chapter 22 Academics
Table 1 Student growth rates at universities and technikons, 1965-2000 504
Table 2 Headcount totals for permanent research/instruction staff
at universities and technikons, 1985-2000 507
Table 3 Highest most relevant qualifications of permanent staff
at universities and technikons, 2000 508
Table 4 Age levels of permanent staff by rank at universities and technikons, 2000 509
Table 5 Race profile of permanent research/instruction staff, 1993-2000 510
Table 6 Gender profile of permanent research/instruction staff, 1993-2000 511
Table 7 Headcount figures for university-enrolled masters and doctoral students,
and the number of graduates in 1996 and 2000 514
Table 8 Headcount figures for technikon-enrolled masters and doctoral students
and the number of graduates in 1996 and 2000 514
Table 9 Headcount of doctoral graduates at universities by race and gender, 2000 515
Chapter 23 Medical Practitioners and Nurses