The Different Paths
of Buddhism:
A Narrative-Historical
Introduction
CARL OLSON
Rutgers University Press
The Different Paths of Buddhism
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RUTGERS UNIVERSITY PRESS
NEW BRUNSWICK, NEW JERSEY, AND LONDON
The Different Paths
of Buddhism
A Narrative-Historical Introduction
CARL OLSON
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Olson, Carl.
The different paths of Buddhism : a narrative-historical introduction / Carl Olson.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8135-3562-X (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-8135-3561-1 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Buddhism. I. Title.
BQ4022.057 2005
294.3—dc22
2004011754
A British Cataloging-in-Publication record for this book is available
from the British Library
Copyright © 2005 by Carl Olson
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,

Stories from Buddhist Villages 123
PART THREE
Major Maha¯ya¯na Movements and Schools
8
The Bodhisattva’s Path to Perfection 143
9
Secret Narratives: Philosophies of Emptiness 163
10
Devotional Voices of the Pure Land 184
11
Tales of Lamas: Tibetan Buddhism 201
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12
The No-Narrative of Seated Meditation: Zen 225
13
New Narratives: Recent Paths of Reform and Revival 245
Chronology 257
Abbreviations 261
Notes 263
Index 285
CONTENTS
viii
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ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book is the outcome of over twenty years of teaching Buddhism on the
undergraduate level at large universities and a small liberal arts college in what at
times in the winter seems like Tibet. Critics might assert that I should have spent
another twenty years working on the subject. I would have to agree, because the
Buddhist tradition is very rich, complex, and widespread. It is impossible to do

unknown. Illustrations 27, 28, 29 are from Daisetz T. Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Cul-
ture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, [1959] 1970), used by permission. The
two maps are from Buddhism: Art and Faith, edited by W. Zwalf (New York: Macmil-
lan, 1985), and are used by permission.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
x
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PART ONE
Origins and Historical
Development
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The early Buddhist tradition is sometimes characterized in the popular imagina-
tion of Westerners as somber, serious, austere, and pessimistic. Because of its
emphasis on suffering and rejection of the world for a more solitary life of contem-
plation and meditation, it is understandable how people could arrive at such a
characterization. But such a caricature would be incorrect and misleading. Within
the hardships of ordinary life, Buddhists have been able to find humor. In a com-
mentary to the text of the Dhammapada, a story is told about some old monks who
became friends with an old woman, the wife of a former member of their group.
When the old woman died, the monks were inconsolable. In order to help them
understand, the Buddha told them a story from the Kaka (Crow) Jataka (stories of
former lives) about their former existence as crows. One day, it seems, the mate of
one of the crows got very drunk, was swept out to sea, and drowned. The crows
attempted to save her by baling out the sea with their beaks, until they finally just
gave up their fruitless effort.
1
We can commiserate with the sorrow of the monks,
but we can also laugh at the absurdity of the desperate actions of the crows.
If the sea in this narrative is a metaphor for the suffering associated with life,

figures such as Jesus and Muhammad, the Buddha gathered a small group of fol-
lowers who were attracted to his charisma and teaching. But unlike figures such
as Jesus and Muhammad, the Buddha insisted upon the creation of a monastic
community. The monastic community shaped those who joined it, and it influ-
enced Indian culture and the laity who were necessary for its support.
The tale of the crows is a good example of the use of narrative by Buddhists
to make a point about some aspect of religion or philosophy. Early Buddhism
developed from within the context of an oral culture in which verbal communi-
cation and narrative were important for spreading one’s message to a mostly illit-
erate populace. Buddhist teachers told stories repeatedly, long before these tales
were preserved in texts. This study of Buddhism proposes to follow the lead of
Buddhist teachers over the centuries by taking a narrative approach to the sub-
ject as much as possible, in order to do justice to a rich religious tradition in
a style long sanctioned by Buddhists themselves. A major advantage of this ap-
proach is that it reduces the imposition of a Western method upon Buddhism.
Moreover, a narrative approach, whose framework is temporal, is a chronological
sequence, which implies that it is also historical. Such an approach includes not
merely traditional stories but also cultural metaphors, similes, anecdotes, sym-
bols, and history to tell a tale or illustrate a point. In short, this book tells the story
of Buddhism. It fails to tell the entire story, however, because Buddhism is a major
world religion that has spread around the globe. Because it is necessary to make
certain choices, this study will focus on India, Tibet, China, and Japan, with some
looks at Buddhism on the village level in such countries as Sri Lanka, Thailand,
and Myanmar (Burma).
Buddhism is a world religion named after its founder, like Christianity. As in
the case of Jesus, there were no Buddhists during the lifetime of the historical
Buddha. The same thing can be said for many centuries afterward. This might
seem to be a strange claim: a Buddha without Buddhism. Certainly, during his life-
time, the historical Buddha insisted upon the creation of a monastic community,
THE DIFFERENT PATHS OF BUDDHISM

India. There was the predominant orthodox Brahmanical tradition that accepted
the four Vedas as divinely revealed literature; it was dominated by a learned
priestly caste and centered on a complex sacrificial cult with roots dating back to
around 1600
B.C.E. In contrast to the more conservative social force of the Brah-
mins, there were various kinds of holy wanderers who existed on the margins of
the orthodox society, and who exerted an influence on Indian culture as rich as
that of the prevailing Brahmanical culture. The early Buddhist cult was part of this
diverse group of holy wanderers. From the margins of the dominant society of the
period, early Buddhists reacted in various ways to the Brahmanical way of religion
by rejecting certain aspects of the religion and incorporating other features into
its own path.
The plethora of Brahmanical deities was, for instance, incorporated into the
worldview of the Buddha and thereby rendered less powerful and ultimately
inconsequential. Like human beings, these deities were subject to the law of cause
and effect (karma) and eventual rebirth (samsara). Therefore, the Brahmanical
CROWS AND MONKS
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deities were not omnipotent or eternal from the Buddhist perspective, although
they were better off materially than human beings. The complex sacrificial system
of Brahmanism drew the ire of the Buddha, who was antagonistic toward its vio-
lent nature. By accepting followers from all walks of life, the Buddha also under-
mined caste prejudice and pretensions. Moreover, the Buddha did not accept the
ancient Vedic scriptures as revealed literature, which means that from the ortho-
dox Brahmanical viewpoint Buddhism is a heresy. This heretical position is
embodied in the Pali canon of southern Buddhism for what is sometimes desig-
nated as Nikaya Buddhism, from the term meaning “collection” (nikaya), which
refers to various texts (suttas) of the body of literature.
Even though Nikaya Buddhism rejected certain Brahmanical beliefs and prac-

about the meal that awaited them.
4
Indian satirists over the centuries returned
the venomous criticism when they portrayed Buddhist monks as carnivorous
drunkards, lecherous thieves, and brawling gamblers, which are all forms of
behavior forbidden to virtuous monks.
Besides the orthodox Brahmanical tradition with its polytheistic beliefs and
THE DIFFERENT PATHS OF BUDDHISM
4
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complex ritual system, numerous people lived on the fringe of this orthodox cul-
ture, individuals called munis and zramana. They were the holy wandering beggars
of ancient India. The term zramana literally means “laborer in the spiritual life.”
Often a group of these figures formed around a charismatic leader, called an
instructor or teacher, thus forming a sect that adhered to the teaching of the
leader. It was also common for groups to merge with one another, which tended
to place a value on proselytizing that increased the prestige of the leader.
5
Although primitive Buddhism resembled these cults held together by a
charismatic teacher, it attempted to differentiate itself from the other groups by
claiming that the Buddha was not a cult leader like others because he was teach-
ing something that he had realized for himself before he began to teach. What the
Buddha taught was not the speculative system of a particular sect but rather
embodied a universal message that transcended the limits of a cult-group.
During the lifetime of the Buddha, there were other sectarian groups that
Buddhists competed with for followers. A group of materialists rejected the ideas
of karma, rebirth, and survival of the human personality after death because they
accepted matter as the ultimate reality. Materialists like the Carvakas or the
Lokayatikas agreed that all phenomena and consciousness could be traced to
transformations of matter. There were also skeptics who were agnostic. And the

It was possible to distinguish between two types of asceticism: external and
internal. The former type focused on the body and restricted a practitioner from
dependence on worldly objects, whereas the latter concentrated on nonpercep-
tual things as emotions, attitudes, and thoughts.
6
A Jain practice that helped to
stop the influx of new karma was the practice of nonviolence (ahimsa), a doctrine
that was based on the conviction that all life-monads were fellow beings. This
included lower animals, plants, and atoms of matter. With the soul purified of
prior residues of karma and new influxes blocked, the soul was able to gain
enlightenment, which was knowledge devoid of karmic obstruction.
7
The enlight-
ened soul remained within the body until death, when it was finally liberated.
This liberated soul was able to rise to the top of the Jain cosmos free from igno-
rance, the law of karma, rebirth, and the suffering characteristic of this cycle. In
comparison to the Jain position, the Buddha did not share its notion of soul or the
extreme forms of asceticism that even included fasting unto death, but it did
share the Jain emphasis on nonviolence.
Historical Context of Nika¯ya Buddhism
Arising during the sixth century B.C.E., Buddhism developed within a period of
great political, social, and economic change. The political change involved the
transition from local ruling families to monarchies and empires. From a social
perspective, there was a change from a society of small villages and towns toward
the development of a more urban society, even though small villages continued
to exist and still do throughout India. Some of the important economic changes
included the use of iron tools to clear land and cultivate it, which led to an abil-
ity to support a larger population. Other economic changes involved the develop-
ment of a monetary system, increasing trade and craft specialization, and the
eventual growth of a rich merchant class. In fact, an influential mercantile com-

Material Gain), which propounded a theory for establishing political and military
power for a state. The empire was maintained and expanded by his son Bindusara
(298–273
B.C.E.) and his heir, the famous Azoka (269–232 B.C.E.).
The Mauryan Dynasty was strengthened by a decline of tribal culture and a
growing agrarian economy. With a firm economic basis and the security afforded
by political unification, there was an expansion of various craft guilds, towns, and
trade. Thus the dynasty continued the development of an urban culture. With
growing wealth and political stability, religious movements such as Buddhism and
Jainism expanded their influence into new areas. These religious movements and
others were assisted by the Mauryan advocacy of religious tolerance and support
for both orthodox and heterodox religions. An excellent example of this spirit of
tolerance was the twelfth Rock Edict of Azoka, which appealed for religious toler-
ation of all sects. The dynasty supported religious groups by donating caves to be
used as retreats, and it financed the construction of monasteries and stupas
(memorial mounds). The kings also sponsored Vedic sacrifices, even though the
Brahmanical priesthood was not enamored of the dynasty.
During the Mauryan Dynasty, Buddhism spread rapidly, due in part to the
support by the king Azoka, who had converted to Buddhism after his conquest of
Kalinga and the remorse that he felt for the bloody carnage caused by the war.
There was a legend that he became a Buddhist monk, although it was more likely
that he lived for a period of time among the members of the brotherhood. Accord-
ing to tradition, the third Buddhist council (c. 250
B.C.E.) was allegedly held at
Pataliputra during Azoka’s reign. The most important development for the subse-
quent history of Buddhism during Azoka’s reign was the sending forth of mis-
sionaries to spread its teachings to other parts of South Asia and the East.
After the death of Azoka, a political decline began that culminated in the
assassination of Brhadratha, the final Mauryan ruler, by his commander-in-chief
named Pusyamitra around 185

the Buddha, and important literary activity occurred among Buddhist sects. Sig-
nificant literary developments included contributions by the great commentator
of the Pali canon Buddhaghosa, and the brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu of the
Yogacara school of Mahayana Buddhism. The Buddhist logician Dignaga was also
active during this period. The Mahayana branch of Buddhism was capturing the
imagination of the people with its assertion that anyone could become an enlight-
ened being (bodhisattva) with the duty to save others from the cycle of suffering.
The historical Buddha was conceived as the eternal truth in the doctrine of the
three bodies (trikaya) of the Yogacara school, which provided an intellectual
foundation to a more devotional form of religion. Chinese pilgrims to India wit-
nessed this devotional form of Buddhism directed to such celestial bodhisattva
figures as Avalokitezvara, a personification of compassion, and Mañjuzri, a per-
sonification of wisdom, and observed the veneration of funeral mounds (stupas).
The decline of Buddhism continued during the Gupta period until it ceased to be
a major religious force in India.
The reasons for the decline of Buddhism in India include a complex web of
internal and external socio-religio-historical factors. Buddhist monastic commu-
nities were always vulnerable to the withdrawal of social and political support.
With the loss of royal support because of political machinations and changes,
monastic life became more precarious and its leadership gradually eroded. Dur-
ing the fourth century
C.E., there was a proliferation of Hindu devotional move-
THE DIFFERENT PATHS OF BUDDHISM
8
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ments that gradually swept away adherents of Buddhism and undermined its
social support. Moreover, Hindus adopted some Buddhist notions, making the lat-
ter less distinctive. The uniqueness of Buddhism was further eroded when, along
with Hinduism, it adopted Tantric notions. Moreover, in a wave of destruction
that began in the sixth century in the northwest region of India with the invasion

C.E. By the sixth century C.E.,
Buddhism made its way to Tibet, after its king married Nepalese and Chinese
princesses who were adherents of Buddhism. A more detailed account of the
development of Buddhism in Tibet will be given in chapter 11. And because later
chapters of this book concentrate on China and Japan, the remainder of this his-
torical survey will concentrate on these countries.
During Azoka’s time, Buddhism reached north to Gandhara and Kashmir.
Near the border of Gandhara in northwestern India was Bactria, a state estab-
lished by Ionian Greeks that dated to the military campaigns of Alexander the
Great. As the Mauryan Dynasty disintegrated, the Greeks invaded northern India.
The most memorable Greek king was Menander, who ruled around the second
century
B.C.E. Coins from his realm depicted his name and image on one side and
the Buddha wheel, which signified the teaching of the Buddha, on the opposite
side. Menander was best remembered as the king in the dialogue with the monk
CROWS AND MONKS
9
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Nagasena in the text entitled Milindapañha (Questions of King Milinda). The Syth-
ians, who originated in northwestern China around 130
B.C.E., eventually con-
quered the kingdom of Bactria. The most famous Scythian king was Kaniska
(reigned c. 78
C.E.), who converted to Buddhism. His support of Buddhism helped
it to spread throughout his vast kingdom. A milestone of his reign was the con-
vening of a Buddhist council to collect manuscripts and compose commentaries
on them. Buddhist missionaries used their northern Indian bases to spread their
religion through central Asia and into China.
Missionaries also traveled a more southerly route through central Asia, which
took them through towns such as Khotan, whereas the northern route took them

state persecution of the religion.
Besides its encroachment into the upper reaches of Chinese society, Bud-
dhism laid a foundation with common people. After the fall of the Later Han
Dynasty (25–220
C.E.), there followed the so-called Period of Disunity (220–589).
THE DIFFERENT PATHS OF BUDDHISM
10
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During this age of instability, ordinary people embraced Buddhism because it
offered spiritual solace and even material aid. Buddhist leaders organized people
into religious groups that provided them with a sense of security and functioned
as mutual aid associations. The Period of Disunity was a time for the development
of what was called Gentry Buddhism in southern China. This intellectual develop-
ment stressed Buddhist and Chinese learning, philosophical discussions, literary
activities, and the mixing of Taoist and Buddhist notions.
The Sui (589–618) and T’ang (618–907) dynasties continued state patronage
of Buddhism. With patronage came increased state control and greater incorpo-
ration of Buddhist rituals into state ceremonies, especially those associated with
imperial accessions and ancestral worship. Buddhists also encouraged efforts to
transform emperors into Buddha figures, like the celestial bodhisattva (enlight-
ened being) Vairocana. Moreover, Buddhism endeared itself to the Chinese peo-
ple by embracing the Confucian virtue of filial piety; this took the forms of
erecting memorial mounds (stupas) and statues of the Buddha in memory of
deceased parents.
In spite of their efforts to adapt to Chinese culture, Buddhists endured a
period of persecution from 574 to 577. When the Sui Dynasty came to power, Bud-
dhism experienced a revival lead by Yang Chien. A decree was issued in 581 that
established Buddhist monasteries at the foot of each of the five sacred mountains
and donated landed estates for their support. The early rulers of the Sui Dynasty
constructed Buddhist temples at locations to commemorate their military suc-

school and one work by Yogacara thinkers; the Ch’an sect; T’ien T’ai school, which
relied on the Lotus Sutra; the Hua-yen (Garland School); Fa Hsiang (Yogacara); Lü
(School of Discipline); and Chên Yen or Mi Tsung, which was a Tantric Buddhist
school. The Pure Land, Ch’an, T’ien T’ai, and Hua-yen schools will be discussed
more fully in later chapters. The teacher Tsung-mi (780–841) provided a unified
vision of these various contending lineages.
Signs of the decline of Chinese Buddhism could be found during the Sung
Dynasty (960–1279), if not before this time. It was possible to find examples of
moral degeneration, lack of discipline, and corruption in the sale of monk certifi-
cates and titles of nonexistent accomplishments during this time. The Sung
Dynasty also represented both a transition in the structure of Chinese society and
a cultural flowering of literature, art, and philosophy.
During the period of late imperial China that encompassed the Ming
(1368–1644) and Ch’ing (1644–1912) dynasties, there is evidence that the former
dynastic rulers tapped into the Maitreya legend of a future Buddha that would
descend to earth and be accompanied by an enlightened (ming) ruler, because
they adopted this popular notion to name the new dynasty. After encouraging the
growth of the clergy and receiving an enthusiastic response from the people, the
leaders of the Ming Dynasty were focused to control the growth. During this
period, only Ch’an and Pure Land schools remained vibrant religious movements
because they shared practices like meditation and chanting. Other schools went
into decline or merged into each other in a process by which they lost their iden-
tity. The choice for Buddhists was not between schools but rather practices. Bud-
dhism continued to produce new sects and movements during this period. It also
influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism, responded to criticism by
Westerners such as the Jesuits, and suffered considerably during the T’ai-p’ing
Rebellion (1851–1865).
When the Communist Chinese occupied the mainland in 1949, they ushered
in a difficult time for all religions, which were considered an opiate of the people
and an escape from reality. The Communists charged that Buddhism was a tool