RELIGION ORIGIN CHARACTERISTICS
Hinduism India in 1500 B.C.
■
Hinduism has no single founder; it developed over a period of 4,000 years.
■
One of its main features is a caste system, in which people are born into a
prescribed class and follow the ways of that class.
■
They are polytheistic.
Buddhism India in 525
B.C.
■
It was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, called the Buddha.
■
Buddhists believe in a cycle of rebirth.
■
The ultimate goal of the Buddhist path is to achieve nirvana, an enlight-
ened state free from suffering.
Judaism Middle East, now
■
The belief in a single, all-powerful God is central to Judaism.
Israel—the Jewish
■
The Torah—the instructions believed to be handed down from God to
calendar begins Moses—encompasses Jewish law and custom.
with the biblical
time of the
Creation
Christianity Jerusalem, now in
■
Early followers believed that Jesus fulfilled the Jewish prophesy of the

culture.
d. Many of the world’s major religions have
influenced human culture for over a thousand
years.
e. All of today’s major religions had their begin-
nings in the Middle East.
The Middle Ages
As the Roman Empire began to fracture in the fourth
and fifth centuries, a period that historians refer to as the
Middle Ages began in Western Europe. During this time,
culture centered on Christianity as the Roman Catholic
Church gained authority and missionaries spread Chris-
tian ideas. A new social organization called feudalism
developed. Based on an agricultural society, this system
divided people into classes. The ruling class consisted of
nobles, while the majority of people were in the peasant
or serf class. Between the eleventh and fourteenth cen-
turies, European Christians led a series of wars called the
Crusades to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims.
Although they did not achieve this goal, the wars brought
Europe in contact with Arab culture, stimulated com-
merce between regions, and increased geographical
knowledge. By the fourteenth century, wars, famine, and
the spread of the bubonic plague, or Black Death—an
infectious disease that killed up to one-third of all Euro-
peans—weakened the feudal economy.
The Renaissance
In the 1400s, a rediscovery of Greek and Roman litera-
ture led to the humanist movement in Europe, which
called for a return to classical ideals. As Western Europe

society and challenged the notion that knowledge is
inborn. The works of the French philosopher Jean
Jacques Rousseau shaped political and educational the-
ory, as did the ideas of Immanuel Kant in Germany,
David Hume in England, and Benjamin Franklin and
Thomas Jefferson in the American colonies.
EXERCISE 2
Select the best answer to the questions based on the para-
graph about the Age of Enlightenment. The answers are
on page 168.
1. Which of the following statements about the
Enlightenment is an opinion?
a. The proponents of the Enlightenment
believed in rationality.
b. The Enlightenment philosophers challenged
formerly held beliefs.
c. The Enlightenment was an international
movement.
d. John Locke contributed the most to the
Enlightenment philosophy.
e. Hume, Kant, Jefferson, and Franklin shared a
faith in human reason.
– WORLD HISTORY–
136
Early European Explorers
DATE (A.D.) EXPLORER ORIGIN LANDING SITE
986 Eric the Red Iceland Greenland
1000 Leif Ericsson Norway North America, possibly Newfoundland
1492 Christopher Columbus Spain Bahamas, Cuba, and Hispaniola
1497 John Cabot England Cape Breton Island

By the mid-nineteenth century, changes in technology
began to transform Europe and the United States from
societies with an agricultural base to ones with an indus-
trial base. This period is called the Industrial Revolution.
The introduction of steam-powered engines, inventions
that increased the output of cotton textiles, and the
advent of the railroad are some of the technological
changes that increased the speed of production and
transportation of goods.
The doctrine of laissez-faire appealed to factory own-
ers of the Industrial Revolution. Supported by econo-
mists like Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill, this
doctrine stated that economic systems work better with-
out intervention by government. Another doctrine that
developed during this period was The Communist Man-
ifesto, a document of communist principles. Authored
by German writer Karl Marx in 1848, the Manifesto
described the history of society as a history of class strug-
gles between the ruling class and the exploited working
class. Marx believed that the working class would over-
throw the powerful capitalist class of the Industrial Rev-
olution and create a classless society. His ideas later
influenced Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and the formation of
the Communist state in Russia.
World War I
World War I (1914–1918) involved 32 countries, includ-
ing many European nations, the United States, and other
nations around the world. By the war’s end, ten million
soldiers were killed and 20 million wounded. The assas-
sination of the heir to Austro-Hungarian throne by a Ser-

137
regime continued to hold power until its collapse in
1991.
World War II
World War II (1939–1945), the deadliest and most
destructive war in history, began between Germany and
the English and French, but later included all of the
major world powers. The rise of fascism—an Italian term
for military-based totalitarian governments—as well as
the effects of economic depression, fueled the conflict.
The peace settlements of World War I also left three
powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan—dissatisfied, and
each wanted to increase its territory. In Germany, Adolf
Hitler of the German National Socialist (Nazi) Party,
promoted national pride and offered a scapegoat for the
country’s economic problems: the Jews. His racist poli-
cies led to the persecution and murder of millions of
Jewish people and other Europeans, an atrocity now
known as the Holocaust.
Germany, with Hitler in power, began an aggressive
campaign in Europe, invading Czechoslovakia. Hitler
then created an alliance with Italy and Japan to form the
Axis Powers. When Germany invaded Poland, Great
Britain and France entered the war. By 1940, the only
Allied force to resist German occupation was Great
Britain. However, Great Britain gained an ally when Ger-
many invaded the Soviet Union in 1941.
Although the United States was trying to be neutral in
the conflict, events forced it to enter the war. On Decem-
ber 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, a U.S. military

which of the following is a likely assumption as
to why Hitler rose to power?
a. Hitler’s totalitarian government exercised
absolute power.
b. Many citizens resisted the rise of the Nazi
Party.
c. Germans wanted a powerful leader who
would lift them out of financial chaos.
d. Germans needed a leader to fend off British
and French aggression.
e. Nazi propaganda techniques were not
successful.

U.S. History
A New Nation
After Columbus landed in the Bahamas in 1492, Western
Europe began colonization of the Americas. Spain, Por-
tugal, France, The Netherlands, and England had vast
holdings in the New World. A group of English immi-
grants called Puritans—people seeking to purify the
Church of England—started settlements in New Eng-
land. One group, known as the Pilgrims, landed in Ply-
mouth, Massachusetts in 1620. These settlers established
the Plymouth Colony and created the Mayflower Com-
pact, an agreement that said the colonists would make
decisions by the will of the majority. This became the
first instance of self-government in America. Through-
out the British colonies, forms of self-government
developed.
– WORLD HISTORY–

The colonies won their independence after seven years of
the Revolutionary War. The new states created a system
of government under the Articles of Confederation. This
framework limited the power of the central government
and allowed the states to act as separate nations. This sys-
tem could not address issues such as national defense,
trade between states, or a common currency. In 1787,
leaders met to draft the Constitution, which was
approved by the states in 1788. The Constitution outlines
the fundamental principles of the American republic. It
defines the powers of Congress, the president, and the
federal judicial system, and divides authority in a system
of checks and balances so that no branch of government
can dominate over the others. To calm the fears of those
that believed a central government would interfere with
individual freedoms, the framers of the Constitution
added the Bill of Rights. These ten amendments to the
Constitution safeguard citizens’ rights, such as freedom
of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of religion.
EXERCISE
4
Read the following question and select the best answer.
The answer is on page 168.
1. Which of the following was a consideration in
creating the Bill of Rights?
a. dividing power between the three branches of
government
b. creating a judicial system
c. forming a strong central government
d. protecting the rights of states

states withdrew from the Union. They formed a separate
government called the Confederate States of America.
Here is the division between free and slave states in 1861:
FREE
STATES
Maine Indiana
New Hampshire Illinois
Vermont Michigan
Massachusetts Wisconsin
Rhode Island Iowa
Connecticut Minnesota
New Jersey Kansas
New York Oregon
Pennsylvania California
Ohio
S
LAVE STATES
Maryland South Carolina*
Delaware Georgia*
Virginia* Florida*
Kentucky Alabama*
Missouri Mississippi*
Louisiana* Arkansas*
Texas* Tennessee*
North Carolina*
TERRITORIES
Washington Nevada
Dakota Colorado
New Mexico Utah
Indian Nebraska

worked long hours doing monotonous work in danger-
ous conditions. As a result, national labor unions began
to form to protect the rights of workers. The first
national labor union was the Knights of Labor, which
organized in 1869. In 1886, the American Federation of
Labor (AFL) formed, joining together a network of local
unions. Led by Samuel Gompers, an immigrant cigar
maker, the union rallied for improved hours, wages, and
working conditions. Reformers, called the Progressives,
wanted to curb the power of big business and protect
working people. Among other goals, progressive reform-
ers wanted to end child labor and introduce a minimum
wage. Through their efforts, government at the local,
state, and national level began to regulate business.
EXERCISE 5
Use the information from the big business passage to
select the best answer for each question. The answers are
on page 168.
1. Which of the following slogans would industrial-
ist John D. Rockefeller most likely support?
a. Live Free or Die
b. Our Union, Our Voice
c. Equal Pay for Equal Work
d. That Government Is Best Which Governs
Least
e. Big Government
– WORLD HISTORY–
140
2. Which of the following was NOT a goal of the
Progressives?

food prices
National Industrial Recovery Act—outlined
codes for fair competition in industry
Securities and Exchange Commission—
established to regulate stock market
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation—
insured bank deposits in the case that banks
fail
Public Works Administration—built roads,
public buildings, dams
Tennessee Valley Authority—brought electric
power to parts of the Southeast
Although the New Deal brought relief, it did not end
the Depression. The economy did not revive until the
nation entered World War II in the 1940s. However, the
New Deal had long-lasting effects. It expanded the pow-
ers of the central government to regulate the economy,
and it created “safety-net” programs that would assist
citizens.
– WORLD HISTORY–
141
class="bi x0 y13b w2 he"
I
N THIS CHAPTER, you will learn about the basic ideas of civics (the rights and responsibilities of citizens)
and government (the way that political power is organized and distributed). After an overview of the dif-
ferent types of political systems that exist in other countries, you will review the American system of gov-
ernment: its structure at the federal, state, and local levels; voting and election procedures; political parties; and
the process of becoming an American citizen.

Political Systems

■
Great Britain
■
Japan
■
Sweden
Dictatorship
■
It is ruled by one leader who has absolute power over many
■
Nazi (National
aspects of life, including social, economic, and political. Socialist) govern-
■
Leader is not elected by the people. ment of Adolf Hitler
■
General Augusto
Pinochet in Chile
from 1973–1990
Oligarchy
■
It is governed by a small upper-class group.
■
City-state of Sparta
■
Leaders are not elected by the people. in ancient Greece
Democracy
■
In direct democracy, decisions are made by the people. Representative
■
In representative democracy, people elect officials to democracies:


The American System of
Government
The United States is a federal republic—a representative
democracy in which power is split between a central
government and the states. To ensure that power is not
concentrated in one authority, the central, or federal,
government is divided into three branches: the legislative,
executive, and judicial. Each branch has an important
function:
■
The legislative branch makes laws.
■
The executive branch carries out laws.
■
The judicial branch interprets laws.
The U.S. Constitution also allows each branch to place
controls or limits on the power of the other two
branches, so that no one branch dominates. This frame-
work is called the system of checks and balances. For
example, the legislature (U.S. Congress) may pass a bill,
but before it can become law, the executive (the presi-
dent) must sign it. The president can refuse it by vetoing
it. However, Congress can still pass the bill into law—in
an action called overriding the veto—if two-thirds of its
members vote for it. (See table at bottom of this page.)
State and Local Governments
State governments resemble the framework of the federal
government. The governor acts as the chief executive and
can veto legislation. Most states have legislatures made of

Vice President
■
A president cannot serve more than two terms.
Agencies
■
Vice president becomes head of state if the president
Departments becomes disabled or dies in office.
■
Agencies carry out a president’s policies and provide special
services.
■
Department heads advise a president and carry out policies.
Legislative Branch U.S. Congress:
■
Number of representatives for each state is based on the
House of population of that state.
Representatives
■
Representatives serve two-year terms.
Senate
■
Each state has two senators.
■
Senators serve six-year terms.
Judicial Branch U.S. Supreme Court
■
U.S. Supreme Court is the highest court in the nation.
Circuit Courts
■
The president appoints the nine justices of the Supreme Court.

1. Which of the following conclusions can you
make about political parties?
a. They should be outlawed because they are not
mentioned in the Constitution.
b. Prior to the nineteenth century, the Green,
Libertarian, Reform, and Socialist parties were
more influential than they are today.
c. Political parties have an influential role in the
political process today.
d. It’s hard to tell the Democratic and Republi-
can parties apart these days.
e. Third-party candidates can alter the outcome
of an election.
Voting and Elections
To vote in the United States, a person must be 18 years
old and a U.S. citizen. Presidential elections occur every
four years, and Congressional elections are held every
two years. Most national elections in the United States
use a plurality system, which means that a candidate need
only receive more votes than his or her opponent to win.
In contrast, some European nations have proportional
representation. In this system, if a political party earns
15% of the vote, it would be awarded 15% of the parlia-
mentary seats.
In the United States, primary elections are held before
general elections. In primaries, voters give their prefer-
ence for a political party’s candidate. General elections
then decide the ultimate winner.
Becoming an American Citizen
Immigrants come to the United States for many reasons:

measured, and how the U.S. government is involved in the nation’s economy.

Types of Economic Systems
None of the three basic economic systems—capitalism, socialism, and communism—exists in pure form. Each has
some characteristics of the others. For example, in the U.S. economy, which is primarily capitalist, the govern-
ment does place some controls over private business in order to protect consumers.
CHAPTER
Economics
ON THE GED, questions about economics will include the areas
of supply and demand, inflation and deflation, and economic systems.
Many economics questions will ask you to interpret and analyze a chart
or graph, so practice in working with visual aids will be helpful in your
preparation.
16
147
TYPE CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES
Capitalism
■
Individuals and private organizations own and operate businesses.
■
United States
■
Free market determines production and distribution of goods and services.
■
Prices set by supply and demand.
Socialism
■
State owns and operates many businesses and services.
■
Sweden

cost of production and make a profit for their company.
Industries try to get the highest possible price for their
goods. Consumers try to get the lowest possible price.
These different goals can affect the price of a product or
service.
When companies make the exact amount of a prod-
uct or service at a price that customers are willing to buy,
they have reached a point of equilibrium. If the price is
greater than this point, demand drops and there may a
surplus, which is when there are more goods produced
than customers are willing to buy. If the price falls below
the point of equilibrium, demand may increase and cre-
ate a shortage in supply.
For example, Company X is introducing a new cell
phone model, the XLZ. (See the graph on next page.)
The business wants to determine the equilibrium point,
so that it will not have a surplus or shortage of the prod-
uct. To cover its costs and make a profit, Company X can
supply ten phones for $1,100. As the price increases, the
company can offer more phones for sale. However, few
customers are willing to pay high prices for the phones.
As the price drops, demand increases.
E
XERCISE 8
Refer to the graph “Supply and Demand Curves for Cell
Phone XLZ” on page 149 to answer the following ques-
tions. The answers are on page 169.
1. At what price does the supply of cell phone
model XLZ equal that of demand?
a. $1,400

Equilibrium
Supply
Demand
0

Business Cycles
Capitalist economies experience business cycles, periods
of growth followed by a period of low productivity and
income, called a recession. A depression occurs when
recession lasts for a long period and is severe. During the
Great Depression in the 1930s, the United States experi-
enced its worst depression. At that time, large numbers of
people suffered unemployment and homelessness.
Economic growth is the goal of capitalism. During a
boom period, companies are able to produce more goods
and services, and consumers are able to buy more goods
and services. Inflation occurs when the amount of money
in circulation increases and the amount of consumer
goods (supply) decreases. The dollar drops in value
and prices increase. Deflation happens when the money
supply decreases and the amount of consumer goods
increases. Prices are lower, but companies lose profit
and lay off employees, which results in higher rates of
unemployment.

Role of the Government
To avoid inflation and unemployment, the U.S. Federal
Reserve System (“the Fed”) takes measures to keep the
economy in balance by controlling the supply of money
in the country. One way it does this is by setting the

Labor Statistics tracks changes in prices in common
goods and services—food, clothing, rent, fuel, and oth-
ers—each year. The graph shows the CPI in all U.S. cities
between 1990 and 2001. To make comparisons between
years, the graph uses the years 1982–1984 as a base
period (1982–1984 = 100). For instance, if the average
urban consumer spent $100 on living expenses in
1982–1984, he or she spent more than $150 on the same
expenses in 1995.
EXERCISE
9
Using the graph and passage about the consumer price
index, answer the following questions. The answers are
on page 169.
1. How much would an urban consumer expect to
pay in 2001 for an item that costs $50 in
1982–1984?
a. $88
b. $100
c. $176
d. $43
e. $131
2. What conclusion can you make based on the
graph?
a. The CPI tracks price changes for common
household expenses.
b. The cost of living has decreased in recent
years.
c. The rate of increase in the cost of living
slowed between 1999 and 2000.

IN THE geography section of the GED, you will be asked to answer
questions relating to both physical geography (the features of the
Earth’s surface) and cultural geography (the way humans relate to their
physical environment).
17
151
Reading and Understanding Maps
Intersecting lines that form a grid help locate specific
areas on a world map. Lines of latitude run parallel to the
equator, an imaginary line that runs east and west. The
equator is at 0° latitude. It divides the globe into two
halves, called the northern and southern hemispheres.
Lines of longitude run parallel to the prime meridian, an
imaginary that runs north and south through Green-
wich, England. The prime meridian is at 0° longitude. It
divides the globe into two halves, called the eastern and
western hemispheres. To find a specific location on the
globe, look for the point where its latitude and longitude
intersect. For example, you can find the western portion
of Brazil if you are given its coordinates as 45° west lon-
gitude and 10° south latitude.

Climate
Climate describes the atmosphere of a region over a long
period of time. It includes rainfall, humidity, wind, and
other elements. A region’s climate is most affected by its
latitude. Broad areas, called climatic zones, lie along lati-
tudinal lines between the equator and the north and
south pole. The tropical zone includes all land and water
that falls between two imaginary lines called the Tropic of

time. This field, called demography, looks at changes in
population through birth rate, death rate, and migration
from one place to another. One major factor affecting
where people live is a region’s type of economy. In areas
that depend on agriculture for their economy, people
generally live in rural areas. In places with an industrial
economy, urban areas become major population centers.
In 1950, 29% of the world’s population lived in urban
areas. In 1990, this figure increased to 43%.
Today, more than half the world’s population—an
estimated 6.2 billion—lives in Asia, with China and India
as major contributors. The United States, the third most
populous country in the world, makes up less than 5% of
the global total.
– GEOGRAPHY–
152
Source: Data from U.S. Census Bureau, International Data
Base.
The U.S. Census Bureau predicts that the world pop-
ulation will reach over nine billion people by 2050, with
most of the population increase occurring in less devel-
oped countries.
EXERCISE
10
Use the pie graph and paragraph about world popula-
tion distribution to answer the following question. The
answer is on page 169.
1. Which of the following is a statement of fact
rather than opinion?
a. The Chinese government should continue its

153
class="bi x0 y13b w2 he"
O
N THE SOCIAL Studies Exam, you will read short passages, varying in length from 50 to 170
words, and then answer a multiple-choice question or set of questions concerning the passage.
Reading passages may be taken from a number of sources, often drawn from a workplace or aca-
demic context. The test uses both primary sources, such as firsthand historical or practical documents, and sec-
ondary sources, such as excerpts from editorials, news articles, or news magazines.

Be an Active Reader
When you read social studies material, you use a similar set of skills as you do when you read other kinds of text.
Reading is an active exercise in which you interact with the text, paying close to attention to the key thoughts and
details of a passage. Try skimming a passage first so that you can discern its organization and get clues about its
main ideas. If you read at a slow pace initially, you may lose the overall idea in too many details. Look to see if a
reading excerpt is broken into sections, if there are any helpful topic headings, and what key terms are boldfaced
or highlighted. After you finish skimming, go back and read more closely. This time ask yourself questions as you
read to help you better understand and recall the passage: What is the main point of the text? How did the author
support his or her point? As you read, consider making quick notes on a separate piece of paper to help you high-
light important words or ideas.
CHAPTER
Tips and
Strategies for
the GED Social
Studies Exam
YOU HAVE reviewed what you need to know for the Social Stud-
ies Exam. Now you will learn some specific tips and strategies to use
on the exam.
18
155


B.C. with three identical
texts—two in hieroglyphic languages and one in
ancient Greek—aided scholars in deciphering
hieroglyphics.
Note that a statement might be too general to best
describe the main idea of a passage. For example, look at
the following choices. Which best describes the main
idea of the selection?
a. Early civilizations often developed near a
water source.
b. Before deciphering the Rosetta Stone, scholars
could not read Egyptian hieroglyphics.
c. Ancient Egypt was a sophisticated civilization
that made many contributions to human
culture.
d. The most important Egyptian contribution
was a written script called hieroglyphics.
e. Scholars have found similarities between
heiroglyphics and ancient Greek.
Although choice a is a true statement, it is too general
to express the main idea of the paragraph. Choice b is
also a true statement but is too specific to describe the
passage’s main idea. Choice d is an opinion that is not
supported by the details of the passage. Choice e is not
supported by the passage. Choice c best describes the
paragraph’s main idea.
To practice finding the main idea, ask yourself some of
the following questions when you read:
■
What is this passage about?

The next sentence offers specific information that
– TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM–
156
supports the main idea. It offers a specific fact in the
form of a statistic (ninety-nine percent of global natural
increase) and gives details about which areas of the world
the passage is talking about (developing regions of Africa,
Asia, and Latin America).
These words and phrases are often used to introduce
a detail or idea that supports an author’s position:
for example for instance
one reason is in one case
in particular specifically
To practice locating supporting ideas while you read,
skim the text and look for the following:
■
examples that bolster the main idea
■
contrasting arguments that clarify the author’s
point
■
arguments for the author’s position
■
details that answer what, when, where, why,
or how

Restating Information
The GED Social Studies Test will ask you to answer ques-
tions based on details supplied in a passage. However, the
answer choices will not present the details in the same

c. Labor groups were afraid that U.S. jobs would
be lost.
d. Canada and the United States never approved
NAFTA.
e. Labor groups believe it is cheaper to produce
goods in the United States.
Choice c is correct. It restates the following sentence
from the passage: “Labor groups believed that NAFTA
would make it easier for U.S. businesses to move their
plants to Mexico to take advantage of cheap labor.”
Choices a and d are incorrect statements. Choice b may
be true, but it is not mentioned in the paragraph.

Making Inferences
While restating information tests your ability to know
what a text says, making inferences about a passage
demonstrates your ability to know what a text means.
Sometimes, an author may not explicitly state his or her
main idea or offer a conclusion. You must infer the
author’s meaning. Being able to make inferences is an
important critical thinking skill. To figure out an
unstated idea or conclusion, look at what the author has
stated. Ask yourself these questions:
■
What can I conclude based on the information
provided?
■
What is the author suggesting?
■
What will be the outcome?

tion that women do not want the right to vote. Statement
b is not supported by the details given in the passage.
Statement c is the best answer. Stanton uses strong lan-
guage to make her argument for women’s suffrage. She
says that “canon law,” which refers to the laws of the
Christian Church, and “civil law,” which refers to the laws
of the United States, have used their power to keep
women in a “subordinate position.”
Looking for Proof
Just because something is in print does not mean that the
reader must believe it or take it as fact. Most written
material has some bias. Sometimes, a writer’s beliefs may
unknowingly affect how he or she writes about an event.
In other instances, a writer purposefully tries to shape
your reaction and opinion. For example, a writer may
present only one perspective of an event or include only
facts that support his or her position. One crucial think-
ing skill that the GED will measure is your ability to
make judgments about what you read. As you read, you
will need to challenge the author’s assumptions and posi-
tions, tell the difference between fact and opinion, and
look for complete and accurate information.
FACT VS. OPINION
A fact is a statement that can be verified by a reliable
source. Because all sources have some bias, you must
decide whether you think a source presents accurate,
researched information. Examples of reliable sources of
information may include official government docu-
ments, encyclopedias, or well-documented studies. Here
is an example of a factual statement:

critical thinking. Advertising, media, and political cam-
– TIPS AND STRATEGIES FOR THE GED SOCIAL STUDIES EXAM–
158
paigns use propaganda techniques to influence you. To
detect propaganda, ask yourself the following questions
about written material:
■
Who does it benefit?
■
What are its sources?
■
What is the purpose of the text?
Here are six common propaganda techniques:
Bandwagon—The basic message of bandwagon
propaganda is “everyone else is doing something, so
you should be, too.” It appeals to the desire to join
the crowd or be on the winning team. Phrases like
“Americans buy more of our brand than any other
brand” or “the brand that picky parents choose” are
examples of the bandwagon technique. To evaluate a
message, ask these questions:
■
Does this program or policy serve my particular
interests?
■
What is the evidence for or against it?
Common Man—This approach tries to convince
you that its message is “just plain old common
sense.” Politicians and advertisers often speak in an
everyday language and use common jokes and

United States must further restrict immigration in
order to preserve freedom and liberty.”
Try to challenge what you read or hear. Ask yourself:
■
What does the generality really mean?
■
Has the author used the generality to sway my
emotions?
■
If I take the generality out of the sentence, what
are the merits of the idea?
Labeling or name calling—This method links a
negative label, name, or phrase to a person, group,
belief, or nation. It appeals to hates and fears. Name
calling can be a direct attack or it can be indirect,
using ridicule. Labels can evoke deep emotions, such
as Commie, Nazi, or Terrorist. Others can be nega-
tively charged, depending on the situation: Yuppie,
Slacker, Liberal, or Reactionary. When a written text
or speech uses labeling, ask yourself these questions:
■
Does the label have any real connection to the
idea being presented?
■
If I take away the label, what are the merits of the
idea?
Testimonials—In advertising, athletes promote a
range of products, from cereal to wristwatches. In
politics, celebrities endorse presidential candidates.
Both are examples of testimonials. A testimonial