1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1. Motivation for the study
One of the most crucial factors in keeping up with the development of society
and the need of communication in the present day is the acquisition of at least a
foreign language, especially English because English is the language of
globalization, international communication, commerce, the media and pop
culture. English is also the most widespread language on the earth (The
Encyclopedia Britannica, 2006b). English is used widely in public or private
sphere in more than 100 countries all over the world (The Columbia
Encyclopedia, 2006d). Five thousand newspapers i.e. more than half of the
newspapers published in the world are published in English (Yamaguchi, 2002
c). English learners can also update their knowledge faster and more effectively
than others in different areas such as academic, science, technology because most
of the information and knowledge in these areas are transferred in English. “Over
70% of the world‟s scientists read English (Hasman, 2007 c). “Following World
War II, the economic and cultural influence of the United States increased and
English permeated other cultures, chiefly through development to
telecommunications technology and became the lingua franca of the world”
(Crystal, 1997 a; Brutt-Griffer, 2002; Seidlhofer, 2003; McKay, 2003; Llurda,
2004; and Ha, 2005 a). In sum, the role of English language acquisition is more
and more important.
However, the process of English acquisition is not easy and ideal as the benefits
that the language brings to learners. They must make great efforts to face not
only some visible difficulties such as a large number of vocabularies, using
learned words in writing speaking effectively and remembering difficult
grammar structures as well as using it in suitable situations but also the
unexpected and unrecognizable challenge that is making errors. Although
learners try to study well, making errors during the learning process is natural
and unavoidable. This “more tolerant modern approach” is based on the fact that

Interviews and observations are used to collect data. Documentary analysis is
also exploited.

3
The first used instrument in the study was a questionnaire for interviewing.
Interviewing questions were designed to obtain many different answers and
attitudes of teachers about spoken error correction, about the correction time,
correction techniques, and necessities of the corrections. To strengthen the reality
of the study, also at that time, five observations on five accidentally chosen
lessons were carried with five different classes in order that the collected data
were able to reflect variously spoken errors corrections with different classes and
teachers.
The data collected are grouped into themes and the compared against the theory
of correction techniques in methodology textbooks.
4. Scope of the study
This study is limited to four English teachers and 178 students at Thanh Binh 1
High School, Thanh Binh District, Dong Thap Province. The study was
implemented in this school from December 4
th
, 2011 to April 2012.
5. Significance of the study
This thesis may help teachers identify their used correction ways are effective
and appropriate or not, and help them find more effective ways to correct
students‟ errors. Teachers may also pay more attention to choosing what
effective techniques to correct students‟ spoken errors and choosing when and
how they should give corrections. It may not only make students minimize their
errors but also learn from their errors and be able use English language better in
communication thank to some effective and useful spoken errors correction
techniques suggested.
6. Related previous studies

the study, limitation of the study, some implications and suggestions for further
study.
5
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Concepts of errors
Concepts of errors are complicated because of its nature. Many different
researchers have different concepts of errors which depend on their different
considerations and the aspects of language they are approaching.
Making errors seems to be natural during the process of learning and teaching
foreign language. People consider it natural thing, so it should be avoided and
dealt with. It is similar to something that is unexpectedly forgotten during the
learning process. According to Dulay et al (cited in Duong Thi Dung), he states
that “Errors are understood as the flawed side of the learner speech and writing,
those part of conversation or composition that deviate from English model of
usage assumed by educated”.
However, “An error is a linguistic form or combination of forms which in the
same context and under similar conditions of production would, in all likelihood,
not be produced by the speakers' native speakers counterparts" (Lennon, 1991).
Other concept of errors is focused on and exploited by the difference between
linguistic form or combination of forms which are produced by native speakers
and produced by foreign language learners in the same situation.
Errors are also defined as something that learners haven‟t known or learned, so
learners‟ making errors seem as a matter of course. “Error is a systematic
deviation, when a learner has not learnt something and consistently gets it
wrong.” (Norrish, 1987:7). Researcher considers errors deviant ones that appear
while people are learning a foreign language. “Errors are systematic deviations
from the norms of the language being learned.” (Cunningworth, 1987:87).

Errors have been further divided into overt and covert (Corder, 1971), errors of
correctness and appropriateness, as far as identification of error is concerned, and
into pre-systematic, systematic and post systematic regarding their description
(Corder, 1974).
Another division was made by Dulay and Burt in 1974 according to which there
are three types of error: the developmental ones which are based on the identity

7
hypothesis are similar to the errors made in Ll acquisition, interference errors and
unique errors which cannot fall into either of the above mentioned categories.
A further subdivision is introduced by Garman (1990: 109, cited in R. Jiménez
Catalán) to distinguish the skill and modality affected: speech production errors
from writing errors on one hand, and auditory comprehension errors from
reading errors on the other.
1.3. Error correction theory
Some people think that making errors is something negative, so it should be
corrected strictly and immediately. If people don‟t correct it in that way, it will
make bad results. However, in error correction theory stated by researchers,
making error is a naturally accepted thing This “more tolerant modern approach”
is based on the fact that errors are normal and unavoidable during the leaning
process (Ancker, 2000 b), so the corrections should be given naturally, which
makes learners feel more confident and encouraged in learning and joining in
study activities. Rivers (1976 b) states “If a teacher is a perfectionist and tends to
be too critical of every small error, the group or individual may perceive the task
as an impossible one….” Being angry is not appreciated in correcting learners‟
error because that makes learners feel sad and disappointed when they creating
errors. When correcting learners‟ errors, Ngo Ai Tuong states “Don‟t look be
angry. Be encouraging. Say nicely, „No, not quite right‟.” Hendrickson (1979)
concurs, “….correcting every error is counterproductive to learning a foreign
language.” Whereas, “when teachers tolerate some student errors, students often

teachers give corrections at the time when students speaking, immediate error
corrections may stamp down a learner‟s willingness to speak in class at all
because it can interrupt the learner in the middle of a sentence. On the other
hand, although delayed feedback can allow the learner time to finish what the
learner is trying to say, the feedback may become less effective as the time
between the error and treatment increases.
1.4. Correction techniques
We all know that the roles of errors are very important and useful during the
process of language acquisition. Although some people think that errors are
negative things, Error is a good mirror which reflects not only what learners

9
know but also what they don‟t know. Ngo Ai Tuong, in her book “Methodology
Course (2), Teaching Language Components & Skills” wrote that student errors
are useful way of showing what they have and haven‟t learned. So instead of
seeing errors negatively, as a sign of failure (by the students or teacher), we see
them positively as an indication of what we need to teach. Obviously, if we try to
prevent students from making errors we can never find out what they do not
know (pp. 85). Because errors are regarded as important and positive things,
error corrections techniques used to deal with students errors should also be
positive and appropriate. Ngo Ai Tuong, in her book “Methodology Course (2),
Teaching Language Components & Skills” also wrote that many correction
techniques used by teachers are ingenious and intuitive. The important thing is
that they should be appropriate for specific error and clear for learners. It is more
important always to use the same set of techniques so that learners can become
familiar with them. For correcting spoken errors, Ngo Ai Tuong indicates six
appropriately positive spoken error correction techniques.
 Finger correction
The technique is described: Use each finger of your left hand to represent a word.
Holding your palm towards you, your little finger represents the first word of the

Student: He goes to the market.
 „S’ card
Have a large „S‟ written on the card. Keep it in your top pocket. Every time a
student forget an „s‟ at the end of the word, flash your „S‟ card them.
Student: What this?
Teacher: [show the „S‟ card]
Student: What this?
Teacher: Good.

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 BB prompt
Use the model sentence written on the board during the presentation stage to
remind („prompt‟) the student of the form, word order, contraction, etc.
Note: not enough teachers‟ points at the board to elicit correct- it‟s a very easy
way to do correction-don‟t forget about it!
Student: I‟ve been here since two years.
Teacher: [point at the word „for‟ on the board]
Student: Oh. Sorry. I‟ve been here for two years.
 Student-to-student correction
Try some of above technique first, but if they don‟t work, use other students in
class who can answer correctly to help the student who has made the mistake.
Point at a good student and then point at the student who need help and say,
„Help her‟ or „Help him‟.
Student 1: I can football
Teacher: [uses finger correction to show „play‟]
Student 1: I can football
Teacher: [point to student 2 and then to student 1]. Help him.
Student 2: I can play football
Student 1: I can play football
 Modeling (Teacher-to-student): Back chaining.

pronunciation exercise, or some vocabulary work for example - or whether we
are asking the students to use the language as fluently as possible. We need to
make a clear difference between „non-communicative‟ and „communicative‟
activities whereas the former are generally intended to ensure correctness, the
latter are designed to improve language fluency” (Harmer, 2001). The following

13
techniques for error correction during accuracy and fluency are suggest by
Harmer (2001)
Correction during Accuracy work
Correction is usually made up of two distinct stages. In the first, teachers show
students that a mistake has been made, and in the second, if necessary, they help
the students to do something about it. The first set of techniques we need to be
aware of then is devoted to showing incorrectness. These techniques are only
really beneficial for what we are assuming to be language slips rather than
embedded errors. The students are being expected to be able to correct
themselves once the problem has been pointed out. If they cannot do this,
however, we need to move on to alternative techniques. Showing incorrectness:
this can be done in a number of different ways.
 Repeating: here we can ask the student to repeat what they have said,
perhaps by saying again? Which, coupled with intonation and expression, will
indicate that something is not clear.
 Echoing: This can be a precise way of pin-pointing an error. We repeat what
the student has said emphasizing the part of the utterance that was wrong, e.g.
*Flight 309 GO to Paris? (said with questioning intonation). It is an extremely
efficient way of showing incorrectness during accuracy work. Statement and
question: we can, of course, simply say that‟s not quite right, or Do people think
that‟s correct? to indicate that something has not quite worked.
 Expression: when we know our classes well, a simple facial expression or a
gesture (for example a wobbling hand), may be enough to indicate that

about crime committed by children; a „childish crime‟ is an act that is silly
because it‟s like the sort of thing a child would do). We will then ask the student
to repeat the utterance correctly.
Feedback during fluency work
 Gentle correction: if communication breaks down completely during a
fluency activity, we may well have to intervene. If our students cannot think of
what to say, we may want to prompt them forwards. If this is just the right

15
moment to point out a language feature we may offer a form of correction.
Provided we offer this help with tact and discretion there is no reason why such
interventions should not be helpful. Gentle correction can be offered in a number
of ways. We might simply reformulate what the student has said in the
expectation that they will pick up our reformulation, even though it hardly
interrupts their speech, for example:
Student: I am not agree with you
Teacher: I don‟t agree
Student: I don‟t agree with you because I think
It is even possible that students can learn something new in this way when they
are making an attempt at some language they are not quite sure of. We can use a
number of other accuracy techniques of showing incorrectness too, such as
echoing and expression, or even say I shouldn‟t say X, say Y, etc. But because
we do it gently and because we do not move on to a „getting it right‟ stage - our
intervention is less disruptive than a more accuracy-based procedure would be.
Over-use of even gentle correction will, however, be counter-productive. By
constantly interrupting the flow of the activity, we may bring it to a standstill.
What we have to judge, therefore, is whether a quick reformulation or prompt
may help the conversation move along without intruding too much or whether,
on the contrary, it is not especially necessary and has the potential to get in the
way of the conversation.

they heard on the board. This can lead to a discussion in which the class votes on
whether they think the mistakes really are mistakes.
Another possibility is for the teacher to transcribe parts of the recording for
future study. However, this takes up a lot of time! 17
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1. Research questions
The study is to answer two following questions:
(1) Do teachers use correction techniques to deal with students‟ spoken errors?If
yes, Are the techniques used appropriately?
(2) What effects do suggested correction techniques bring to teachers when using
them
3.2. Research participants
3.2.1. The researcher
The study is done by Phan Huu Phuoc, English 2008B class, Foreign Language
Department, Dong Thap University.
3.2.2. The subjects
The subjects of the study are English 10 and 11 textbook, five teachers of English
10 and 11, and 186 students of grades 11 including 11A1, 11A2, 11A3, 10A1,
10A2 and 11CB4 at Thanh Binh 1 High School. Three of the teachers have more
than 7 years in teaching. One has more than 30 years in teaching. Other has 18
years in teaching.In general, Generally speaking, they are really experienced
teachers.
3.3. Research instruments
3.3.1. Interviewing (see Appendix 1)

 Question 4 is to show steps teachers use in correcting errors.
 Question 5 is to check whether teachers use „indirect correction‟
 Question 6 is to identify the time and the ways teacher use „indirect correction‟
if they have ever used.
 Question 7 is to ask teachers to give the reasons for not using „indirect
correction‟.

19 3.3.2. Observation
The second type of data collection in the thesis is classroom participatory
observation. Observation is the most basic research technique we can employ in
our classroom (Miller, 2004). To be convenient for checking, the results of
observations were recorded on observation sheets. The observation notes are
designed with clear categories focused on spoken error correction purposes
which the writer has planned so that they can be easy for the writer to observe
and analyse collected data.
Five periods of five different lessons were observed in five classes. The purposes
are to identify whether use correction techniques to deal with student errors or
not during each stage of the lesson.if teachers use them, check whether they are
effectively used or not, and explore what kinds of errors teachers usually give
corrections. This kind of observation sheet consists of three big items (see
Appendix 2).
. Item I is to identify whether teachers correct students‟ spoken errors or not and
whether spoken error corrections are used without techniques or with techniques
and effectively.
. Item II is to explore what errors teachers usually correct, don‟t correct and
check whether the used corrections are without techniques or with techniques and
effectively.

language form. Certainly, students will repeat their errors in speaking or in doing
tests later.
Three other teachers pay more attention to the time for corrections. Two of them
think that they don‟t enough time to correct all spoken errors students make. One
tends to focus on giving their teaching lesson to student successfully. This idea
partly agrees theory of error correction. Athough one of teachers‟ duties in class
is to instruct students to understand the lesson, correcting students‟ spoken errors

21
is also a very necessary task teachers need focus as well. If teachers always want
to give students and forget correcting students‟ errors, students will use errors as
corretly good things they have learned without teachers‟ corrections. Students
usually thinh that what teachers don‟t correct is right one. Other thinks that
“correcting important errors is necessary”. It corresponds to spoken error
correction because teachers should correct spoken errors selectively. In fact, if
they correct students all the time, they will certainly lose confidence. Having
confidence is very important for students to be able to have good speaking or
good presentation whereas losing confidence will makes classroom atmosphere
low down. Others dare not speak out what they think or have prepared before
because they are worry about being corrected whenever speaking. “Try to create
a relaxed atmosphere in your classes so that most learners are not frightened of
speaking in front of the rest of class”. (Ngo Ai Tuong, Methodology Course (2),
Teaching Language Components & Skills, 75 pp).
2. at what stage of the lesson, do you think is important to correct
students‟ errors?
The interviewing forms show that all of the five interviewed teachers have the
same answer “the important stage to correct students‟ errors is post-stage”.
Choosing post-stage is important to correct students‟ error is appropriate. If
teachers give corrections at while-stage when students are speaking, it can treat
the errors immediately. However, this will not only interrupt students‟

The steps of the used techniques are described as those of technique
„alternatives‟. The difference between this technique and alternative is that
instead of putting a question mark, teacher asks students to repeat chorally and
instead of asking students to repeat with the correct form, teacher reminds the
rules on the board because most of the spoken errors students make are grammar
errors, so writing on the board is necessary.
The third anwser is “ giving a hint or eliciting for students to repeat a few times
the errors they have made (with a funny and polite attitude). Although the
technique teacher uses doesn‟t have enough steps as these introduced in
methodology, corrections with a funny and polite attitude can certainly create the

23
relaxed classroom atmosphere. However, it only focuses on more teachers‟
giving corrections than students‟s finding correction. This technique
unintentionally makes students passive during the correction proccess. In fact,
students only listen to the correct form and repeat what teacher has talked, but
they are not encouraged to correct what they have done with teacher‟s help.
One teacher who doesn‟t use any techniques to deal with students errors is the
fourth one. She rarely corrects students‟ errors with techniques. Her correction
techniques are made by her habit and teaching experience. In general, spoken
error corrections given without techniques can hardly guide students to the
correct language form and make them memorize errors well.
The last one answers “No, I don‟t I correct students‟ mistakes which related to
their grammatical points.”. This teacher appreciates the important roles of
grammatical points than correcting spoken errors and correction techniques.
4. What are your steps to students‟ errors?
The interviewing forms show that all of the five interviewed teachers have
different answers. The first interviewed teacher‟s answer is “First, I help students
to identify the errors, underline them. Then I give the questions to find out the
solution. After that, students show their opinions in groups or individual. Last, I

one of the techniques to deal with students‟ errors. Then, let them repeat the
correct form. Praising them is necessarily encouraged because it makes students
feel confident and they are not worried about being corrected by teacher.
5. Have you ever used „indirect correction‟?
There are two teacher answer „no‟ for this question and others say „yes‟
6. If yes, when and how do you use „indirect correction‟?
The second interviewing gives the answer “After we collect errors from students,
we follow these steps: 1. Collecting errors from students.
2. Showing the common errors on the board.
3. Eliciting the students to correct themselves.

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4. Emphasizing some important errors”.
The steps of the technique are quite good. However, in the step of collecting
errors from students, teacher forgot collecting big mistake secretly. That means
he doesn‟t show who make mistakes. Moreover, he doesn‟t mention the time of
the correction while the suitable time is at the end of the lesson,or start of the
next lesson.
The third interviewed teacher answers “when we teach speaking, reading,
writing, or listening ewe can call some students who are good at English to repeat
so that the others can recognized their mistakes”
The fourth answer “I use „indirect correction‟ very often. I call one student to do
an exercise if he/she makes mistake, I will call a better student to correct this
mistake.” Both the answer of the fourth and third get misunderstanding about
„indirect correction‟. It is a correction technique in which instead of giving error
corrections directly to students who have made or made errors, collecting big
mistakes from students without pointing who created them is used. Students will
correct the mistakes wrriten on the board at the end of the lesson or the start of
the new lesson. In methodology „indirect correction‟ is described that during
pair-work and group work, go around from group to group, with a notebook and