TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration by Author…………………………………………… …………….
Published Works by the Author Relevant to the Thesis…………… ….…….
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………… ………
Abstract…………………………………………………………….…… ……
List of Figures……………………………………………………… …………
List of Tables…………………………………………………………… ………
List of Abbreviations and Symbols Used in the Thesis……………… ……
List of Vietnamese – English Terms………………………………… ….……
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x
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PART A: INTRODUCTION………………………………………… ……….
1. Rationale………………………………………………………… …… ……
2. Aims and Objectives of the Study……………………………… … ………
3. Research Questions……………………………………………… …………
4. Scope of the Study……………………………………… ………….………
5. Contributions of the Study……………………………… ……….…………
6. Methodology……………………………………………… …… … ……….
6.1. Theoretical Framework………………………………… ….……………
6.2. Analytical Framework……………………………… …….…………….
6.3. Data Collection………………………………………… ….……………
6.4. Data Analysis…………………………………………… ….…………
6.5. Procedure……………………………………………… …….………….
7. Structure of the Study……………………………………… …….…………
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i
1.2.3. Previous Research Works on Idioms in English and Vietnamese under
Comparison and Contrastive Analysis……………………………… ….…
1.3. Summary……………………………………………………….…….….…
CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF ENGLISH AND
VIETNAMESE IDIOMS………………………………………… ……………
2.1. Canonical Structural Components…………………………… ………….
2.1.1. Symmetrical Idioms…………………………………… ……………
2.1.1.1. Realization…………………………………… … ……………
2.1.1.2. Structural Patterns……………………………… ….………….
2.1.1.3. Structural Components………………………… …………….
2.1.2. Similized Idioms…………………………………… …… …………
2.1.2.1. Realization…………………………………… … ……………
2.1.2.2. Structural Patterns…………………………… … ……………
2.1.2.3. Structural Components……………………… ….…….……….
2.1.3. Non-symmetrical idioms………………………………… …………
2.1.3.1. Realization…………………………………… … ……………
2.1.3.2. Structural Patterns…………………………… …….………….
2.1.3.3. Structural Components………………………… ……………
2.2. Non-canonical Structural Components……………… … ……………….
2.2.1. Idiom Variants………………………………………… …………….
2.2.1.1. Realization…………………………………… … ……………
2.2.1.2. Structural Components……………………… … ……………
2.2.2. Synonymous Idioms……………………………… … ……………….

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PART C: CONCLUSION…………………………………………….………….
1. Recapitulation…………………………………………………… ….……….
2. Conclusions……………………………………………………… … ………
3. Implications for Idiom Teaching and Translation…………… ……….…
4. Suggestions for Further Studies…………………………………… ………
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151
REFERENCES………………………………………………………… ……
APPENDIX 1………………………………………………………… ….……
APPENDIX 2………………………………………………………… ….……
APPENDIX 3…………………………………………………….… …………

(Geeraets 1995; Gibbs 1990, 1995; Kövecses & Szabo 1996; Nunberg et al. 1994;
Fernando 1996; Langlotz 2006; etc). The formation mechanism of the semantic
components of idioms is motivated by external semantic cognition including metaphors,
metonymies and conventional knowledge (Gibbs 1990, 1995). It is a natural process
implicitly affected by several different factors such as living circumstance (geographical
environment, climate), historical allusion (historical events, fables and mythologies,
literary works), religions and beliefs, and traditions and customs (food and cooking,
animals). This leads to a fact that the component parts forming idioms in the two
languages are different although they denote similar concepts. The thesis also presents
the implications for idiom teaching and translation.
Keywords: idioms, idiomaticity, symmetrical idioms, similized idioms, non-symmetrical
idioms, idiom variants, synonymous idioms, underlying factors, motivation degree,
literal reading, idiomatic meaning
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Classification of symmetrical figurative idioms in Vietnamese
(Hành 2008: 76)………………………………………………….…
Figure 1.2: Classification of non-symmetrical figurative idioms in Vietnamese
(Hành 2008: 100)……………………………………………….……
Figure 1.3: Classification of similized idioms in Vietnamese (Hành 2008: 115)
Figure 2.1. Distribution of symmetrical idioms in English and Vietnamese….…
Figure 2.2: Structural patterns of symmetrical idioms in English……….…….…
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27
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Figure 2.3: Structural patterns of symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese…… …….
Figure 2.4: Structural components of A and B symmetrical idioms in English.…

Figure 2.27: Structural components of AB non-symmetrical idioms as adjective
phrases in English……………………………………………………
Figure 2.28: Structural components of Prep B non-symmetrical idioms as
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prepositional phrases in English…………………………….….……

Figure 3.5: Distribution of semi-opaque symmetrical idioms in English and
Vietnamese……………………………………………… …… ….
Figure 3.6: Semantic components of semi-opaque symmetrical idioms in
English and Vietnamese……………………………… ……………
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Figure 3.7: The relationship between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning
of day and night in English and mồm năm miệng mười in
Vietnamese………………………………………… ………………
Figure 3.8: Distribution of opaque symmetrical idioms in English and
Vietnamese………………………………………… ………… ….

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Figure 3.23: Semantic components of kick the bucket in English and đẽo cày
giữa đường in Vietnamese……………………………… ………
Figure 3.24: The relationship between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning
of kick the bucket in English and đẽo cày giữa đường in
Vietnamese………………………………… ……………………
Figure 3.25: The semantic composition of kick the bucket in English and đẽo
cày giữa đường in Vietnamese (drawn from Fernando & Flavell
1981)…………………………………………………………………
Figure 3.26: The formation of an idiom in English and Vietnamese (drawn from
Fernando & Flavell 1981: 26)…………………………….…………
Figure 3.27: The formation mechanism of semantic components of idioms in
English and Vietnamese………………………… ………………
Figure 3.28: Main factors that affect the formation of semantic components of

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Table 2.6: Possible variabilities of synonymous idioms found in both English
and Vietnamese…………………………………………….…………
Table 2.7: Structural components of non-symmetrical idioms unique to English
Table 2.8: Possible variabilities of idiom variants and synonymous idioms
unique to English………………………………………………………
Table 2.9: Structural components of non-symmetrical idioms unique to
Vietnamese………………………………………………….………
Table 2.10: Possible variabilities of idiom variants and synonymous idioms
unique to Vietnamese…………………………………….….…………
Table 3.1: Nuances of different idiom variant types in English and Vietnamese
Table 3.2: The coordination of semantic components of symmetrical idioms
found in both English and Vietnamese………………… ……………
Table 3.3: The existential relationship between A and B of similized idioms
found in both English and Vietnamese………………… ……………
Table 3.4: Differences between English and Vietnamese in terms of main factors
that affect the formation of semantic components of idioms…….…….
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7

Op
PV
Prep
PrepP
Pro
TL
To-inf
Sen
Sim
SL
Sub
Syn
V
VP
determiner
dependent clause
gerund
head noun
independent clause
language teaching
negative particle
noun
noun phrase
modifier
operator
phrasal verb
preposition
prepositional phrase
pronoun
target language

thành ngữ phi đối xứng
thành ngữ ví von hóa
hợp phần
tường minh
sắc thái nghĩa
mental image
opaque
approach
non-coordination
etymologizing
etymology
synonymous idiom
symmetrical idiom
non-symmetrical idiom
similized idiom
component
transparent
nuance
xii
PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
‘The accurate and appropriate use of expressions which are in the broadest sense
idiomatic is one distinguishing mark of a native command of the language and a reliable
measure of the proficiency of foreign learners’ (Cowie, Mackin & McCaig 1993: x). In
fact, I started learning English in 1994. And I am now working as a teacher of English
in a university in Sonla. Indeed, my students and I all desire to master English as the
native speakers; nevertheless, we usually face a lot of difficulties that prevent us from
gaining natural conversations. One of the reasons for these problems lies in the way we
perceive and use idioms. The structural and semantic problems posed by idioms puzzle
us a lot. Of all the difficulties the most familiar is that of meaning: most idioms do not

and differences. They are similized idioms introduced by prepositions as the first
component parts (like in English and như in Vietnamese). The differences lie in the rest
of component parts forming the idioms. The component parts after like in English
together form a noun phrase whereas those after như in Vietnamese together form a
clause. To the best of my knowledge, the structural components of idioms in both
English and Vietnamese have not yet been investigated in this way.
Although the component parts forming idioms expressing the same concepts in English
and Vietnamese are usually different, they have some features in common. The idioms
in both languages appear from totally transparent to the totally opaque: transparent, i.e.
all the components are explicit (e.g. slow but sure in English and bàn đi tính lại (discuss
something carefully) in Vietnamese); semi-transparent, i.e. some components are
explicit (the meaning focused) and the other are implicit (e.g. as busy as a beaver (very
busy) in English and đẹp như tiên (very beautiful) in Vietnamese); semi-opaque, i.e. all
the components are implicit but possibly interpretable (e.g. like a duck to water (feel
comfortable) in English and như chó với mèo (be always conflictive) in Vietnamese);
and opaque, i.e. all the components are implicit (e.g. kick the bucket (die) in English and
đẽo cày giữa đường (be indeterminate in one’s position) in Vietnamese) (Fernando &
Flavell 1981; Fernando 1996). Investigating semantic components of idioms based on
these semantic criteria in both English and Vietnamese is still the gap. In addition, what
main factors lie behind the differences between the two languages in terms of the
formation of semantic components of idioms also need uncovering (Hành 2008).
For the reasons presented above, we state that studying the structural and semantic
components of idioms in both English and Vietnamese in order to fill in the gap in
research is necessary.
2
2. Aims and Objectives of the Study
The study attempts to find out the similarities and differences between English and
Vietnamese idioms from structural and semantic perspectives.
In order to achieve the aims, the study is expected to reach the following objectives:
- to study how idioms are organized structurally and semantically in English and

learners’ communication because language is for communication, and idioms are an
indispensable part of common expressions (Cowie, Mackin & McCaig 1993: x). The
work will provide assistance to English-speaking learners of Vietnamese and
Vietnamese learners of English to distinguish one kind of idioms from others in each
language. The work will also enable learners to tell when idioms in English and
Vietnamese are similar and different, which is likely to be useful for their study.
Language teachers will be aided to help their learners reach this communicative goal
(see Section 3 in Part C). For translation, knowledge of idioms from this work will help
translators find closest equivalents to the expressions in the source language. Idioms and
idiomatic expressions are the most culture-bound part of any language, so their transfer
is one of the most problematic issues in translation. It is because transfer of language
also involves that of culture, which is not always transferable. In this way, knowledge
from this sort of work will be of great benefit to translators, who should be able to find
the possible equivalents in the target language.
6. Methodology
6.1. Theoretical Framework
As presented in Section 4, idioms in the present study are investigated from both
structural and semantic perspectives. According to Katz & Fodor (1963: 170), ‘a full
synchronic description of a language is a grammatical and semantic characterization of
that language’. The term ‘grammatical’ refers to the description of pholology,
phonemics, morphology, and syntax. ‘Semantic’ belongs to a theory which must be
constructed ‘to have whatever properties are demanded by its role in linguistic
description’ (Katz & Fodor 1963: 171).
Structurally, idioms are generally described and analyzed according to typical
4
grammarical rules. In fact, there are different kinds of grammars. Fromkin (1998)
mentions three types of grammars: descriptive, prescriptive and teaching. The
descriptive grammar involves the description of what the speakers of a language do
when they speak their language. That certain language uses are categorized as
acceptable or unacceptable according to a standard form of the language is called

prepositional phrase, etc which can be further divided into categories such as noun,
adjective, verb, etc (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik 1985). This can be shown by
taking a simple example of the idiom body and soul (completely). This idiom is divided
into two parts which are connected by a coordinator (and). The first part (body) and the
second one (soul) are both nouns.
The semantic components of idioms in the current study are analyzed according to Katz
& Fodor’s (1963) componential theory. According to Katz & Fodor (1963), ‘semantic
components may be combined in various ways in different languages yet they would be
identifiable as the ‘same’ component in the vocabularies of all languages’. Generally,
this theory determines how expressed signs, usually vocabulary items called lexemes, in
a language are related to the perceptions and thoughts of the people who speak the
language. In this theory, word meanings are broken down into semantic features and
their specifications. In other words, the meanings of lexemes are analyzed into
components, which can then be compared across lexemes or groups of lexemes. Since
idioms are regarded as special linguistic units functioning as words (Fernando & Flavell
1981; Fernando 1996; Đức 1995; Hành 2008; etc), they can be analyzed in this way.
Finegan (2004) supposes that words are tangible. They can have one meaningful part
(e.g. car, sing, tall, etc), or more than one meaningful part (e.g. bookstore, laptop,
headset, etc) (Finegan 2004: 40). According to Fromkin (2000: 26), words which are
not the smallest units of meaning may be simple or complex. For example, the word
stayed has two parts, stay and –ed; headmaster includes two words, head and master,
which form a compound; and beautifully may be divided into beautiful and -ly. The
relationship between the form and meaning of a word is an arbitrary one (Fromkin
1998: 5). Fromkin (1998) also states that the sounds represented by the letters of a word
(in the written form of the language) signify a concept. Indeed, both words and idioms
are used to express pure concepts, and they are analyzable.
The canonical structural and semantic components of idioms in the present study are
formally established according to three types of idioms: symmetrical, similized, and
non-symmetrical (Đức 1995; Hành 2008). The structural components of each idiom
type are coded in separate component parts, which are then realized, described and

linguistics that is concerned with pairs of languages which are ‘socio-culturally linked’.
According to these authors, two languages can be said to be socio-culturally linked
when (i) they are used by a considerable number of bi- or multilingual speakers, and/or
7
(ii) a substantial amount of ‘linguistic output’ (text, discourse) is translated from one
language into the other. English and Vietnamese are socio-cultural linked because they
satisfy both criteria given above.
Contrastive linguistics invariably requires a socio-cultural link between the languages
investigated, but that it is not restricted to pair wise language comparison. Contrastive
linguistics thus aims to arrive at results that carry the potential of being used for
practical purposes, e.g. in foreign language teaching and translation. As it provides the
descriptive basis for such applications, its research programme can also be summarized
as ‘comparison with a purpose’. ‘Comparison’ in the present study is understood as the
identification of similarities and differences between two or more categories along a
specific (set of) dimension(s) (König and Gast 2008). We mean that the categories
compared must be of the same type, i.e. there has to be a set of properties that they have
in common in both languages.
In order to carry out a contrastive study, Chaturvedi (1973) suggests some guiding
principles as follows:
(i) to analyse the mother tongue and the target language independently and
completely; (ii) to compare the two languages item-wise-item at all levels of
their structure; (iii) to arrive at the categories of a) similar features, b) partially
similar features, c) dissimilar features - for the target language; and (iv) to arrive
at principles of text preparation, test framing and target language teaching in
general.
The contrastive analysis emphasises the influence of the mother tongue in learning a
second language and translation. This type of study will provide an objective and
scientific base for second language teaching as well as translation. For knowing the
significantly similar structural and semantic properties in both languages, the first step
to be adopted is that both languages should be analysed independently. After the

Vietnamese
Lân, N. (2003). Từ điển thành ngữ và tục ngữ Việt Nam [A dictionary of Vietnamese
idioms and proverbs]. Hà Nội: Nxb Văn học.
Lực, N., & Đang, L. V. (2009). (3
rd
ed.). Thành ngữ tiếng Việt [A dictionary of
Vietnamese idioms]. Hà Nội: Nxb Khoa học Xã hội.
Minh, T. H. (2007). Đi tìm điển tích thành ngữ [Seeking idioms’ classic references]. Hà
Nội: Nxb Thông Tấn.
Ý, N. N., Hành, H. V, Khang, N. V., Thại, L. X., & Thành, P. X. (1998). Từ điển giải
9
thích thành ngữ tiếng Việt [A dictionary of Vietnamese idioms]. Hà Nội: Nxb
Giáo dục.
Ý, N. N. (2002). Từ điển thành ngữ tiếng Việt phổ thông [A dictionary of common
Vietnamese idioms]. Hà Nội: Nxb Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
We choose the dictionaries above because of several specific reasons. Firstly, they are
quite popular and currently available. Secondly, they cover a large number of the idioms
which people are likely to find in everyday English as well as Vietnamese. Thirdly,
most of idiom types can be found in these dictionaries in a large number. And finally,
the dictionaries satisfy the diachronic perspective because the examples for illustrations
are mostly from literal works, magazines and newspapers. The collected data forms a
corpus under three categories: symmetrical idioms (231 for English and 2,343 for
Vietnamese), similized idioms (516 for English and 699 for Vietnamese), and non-
symmetrical idioms (3,387 for English and 1,011 for Vietnamese).
The data in the current dissertation are also published or submitted data which are
available in books, PhD theses and journals such as On Idiom: Critical Views and
Perspectives by Fernando and Flavell (1981), Idioms and Idiomaticity by Fernando
(1996), Bình diện cấu trúc hình thái-ngữ nghĩa của thành ngữ tiếng Việt [Vietnamese
Idioms from Formal-semantic Perspectives] by Đức (1995), Thành ngữ học tiếng Việt
[Vietnamese Idiom Studies] by Hành (2008), ‘Occational Adnominal Idiom

phenomenon and to capture it with detailed information. Often the description is only
true for that moment in time, but it still helps us to understand and know more about the
phenomenon. In addition, descriptive research attempts to determine, describe, or
identify what is, i.e. the descriptive research uses description, classification,
measurement, and comparison to describe what phenomena are (Wisker 2001: 120).
Describing method is applied in the present dissertation to present the theoretical
foundation of idioms in general and idioms from structural and semantic components
perspective in particular, which is then illustrated by examples with explanations and
discussions, and hopefully reach conclusions by deductive reasoning.
The term 'contrastive linguistics' was suggested by Whorf (1941) and was defined as ‘a
sub-discipline of linguistics concerned with the comparison of two or more languages or
subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities
between them’ (Fisiak 1981: 1). Contrastive analysis is the method of analyzing the
structure of any two languages with a view to estimate the differential aspects of their
systems, irrespective or their generic affinity or level of development. Contrastive
11
analysis of two languages becomes useful when it is adequately describing the sound
structure and grammatical structure of two languages, with comparative statements,
giving due emphasis to the compatible items in the two systems. In appearance,
comparing and contrasting are similar to each other, for both methods compare two or
more items (languages in our case) in order to find similarities and differences between
them. But academically they have quite different connotations nowadays, partly of the
etymological meanings of the two words, and partly because of the different traditions
of the two disciplines in their development. Although neither carries an extreme demand
to look for ‘similarity’ or ‘difference’ only, each has nevertheless a tendency for one of
the two, i.e. methodologically, the ‘comparative’ method stresses similarity more, while
the ‘contrastive’ method emphasizes the differences. In the present study, comparing
and contrasting help us to identify, analyze and point out the similarities and differences
between the structural and semantic components of idioms as well as their formation in
English and those in Vietnamese.