Limnology (2008) 9:219–229
DOI 10.1007/s10201-008-0250-8

ASIA/OCEANIA REPORT

Aquatic insect faunas and communities of a mountain stream
in Sapa Highland, northern Vietnam
Sang Woo Jung Æ Van Vinh Nguyen Æ
Quang Huy Nguyen Æ Yeon Jae Bae

Received: 22 November 2006 / Accepted: 13 August 2007 / Published online: 9 July 2008
Ó The Japanese Society of Limnology 2008

Abstract Aquatic insect communities were investigated
from the Muonghoa Stream in the Sapa Highland (highest
peak 3,143 m), a subtropical mountain stream in northern
Vietnam. Field investigations for quantitative (Surber net
50 cm 9 50 cm, mesh size 0.2 mm, riffle and pool/run)
and qualitative (hand net, mesh size 1 mm) sampling were
conducted at nine sites along the watercourse between 27
November and 2 December 2005. As a result, a total of 216
species (the majority of them undescribed) belonging to
139 genera, 61 families, and nine orders were recognized:
53 Ephemeroptera species (24.5%), nine Odonata species
(4.2%), 15 Plecoptera species (6.9%), seven Hemiptera
species (3.2%), 35 Coleoptera species (16.2%), one Megaloptera species (0.5%), 29 Diptera species (13.4%), 66
Trichoptera species (30.6%), and one Lepidoptera species
(0.5%). Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, and Coleoptera represented the major aquatic insect groups with regard to
taxonomic and individual richness, whereas Hemiptera and
Odonata were relatively less diverse and abundant than in
studies of other tropical Southeast Asian streams. The

Korea University, 1 Anam-dong, Seongbuk-gu,
Seoul 136-701, South Korea
e-mail:

The Sapa Highland is located in northern Vietnam (Fig. 1)
and has been identified as the center of biodiversity in
mainland Southeast Asia (Nguyen and Harder 1996). This
area embraces Mt. Fansipan (3,143 m), the highest mountain within peninsular Southeast Asia, and the associated
mountain range extends to the adjacent Yunnan Province
of China and further to the Himalayas.
Although tropical Asian streams are known to constitute
rich habitats for diverse groups of freshwater organisms,
including aquatic insects, the actual makeup of the fauna
inhabiting these regions remain poorly understood. In

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Limnology (2008) 9:219–229

Fig. 1 Study sites (St. 1–St. 9)
in the Muonghoa Stream of
Sapa Highland, northern
Vietnam

previous studies, Nguyen et al. (2001) studied the altitudinal
distribution of aquatic insects in a stream in Tam Dao
National Park in northern Vietnam, and Cao et al. (2008)

42 km in total length. As the stream flows from the high
mountain peaks to the lowland areas along the watercourse,
the stream and riparian areas represent diverse temperate
and tropical forest elements (Nguyen and Harder 1996).
Nine sampling sites belonging to stream orders I–V
(stream orders were determined with a map of scale
1:60,000) were selected as follows along the watercourse;
all but one site (site 3) were located on the mainstream
watercourse (Fig. 1). Site 3 was located at a tributary
headwater within the upper stream reach. The
environmental factors at each sampling site are shown in
Table 1.
St.
St.
St.
St.
St.
St.
St.
St.
St.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

104°040 26300

E): Thac-Bac (upper)
E): Thac-Bac (lower)
E): Quy-Ho
E): Shin-Chai
E): Cat-Cat
E): Ta-Van
E): Cau-May
E): Ban-Ho
E): Ben-Den.

Field investigations and analyses
Field investigations were conducted from 27 November to
2 December in 2005. Aquatic insects were sampled with a


Depth and current speed were measured at the sampling points

Substrate: S sand, G gravel, P pebble, C cobble, B boulder, L leaf litter, M moss, A algae; dominant substrates are indicated in bold
c

a, b

1139.4 ± 667.5 46.7 ± 39.8 24.2 ± 24.5 18.7 ± 8.1 26.6 ± 11.1 3.0 ± 0.8 0.4 ± 0.6 15.3 ± 3.4 7.3 ± 0.9 7.5 ± 0.5

79
V

Mean ± SD

7.18

7.85
17.5

18.4
0

1.00
3.96

3.13
40

31
30

23
35–38

50–57
95–100
404
IV
St. 8

643
III
St. 7


7.59
7.78
13.1
1.00
2.97
41
30
10–12

Forest

St. 5

1,358
III

25–30

90
C, P, B, G
8.10
6.85
12.1
0
2.80
23
23
5–6

Forest


8–10

80

90
C, M, L, P

B, M, P, C
7.25

7.60
5.71

6.90
12.8

11.7
0

1.40
2.42

1.98
20

18
10

10


221

Site

Table 1 Environmental data of the Muonghoa Stream of Sapa Highland, northern Vietnam (DO dissolved oxygen, SD standard deviation)

10–15

Canopy Landscape
(%)

Limnology (2008) 9:219–229

Surber net (50 cm 9 50 cm, mesh size 0.2 mm) for
quantitative purposes; two Surber samples were obtained
in riffle and pool/run habitats (total sampling area
5,000 cm2 per site). Additional samples were obtained
with a hand net (mesh size 1 mm) in a variety of
microhabitats for qualitative purposes. General environmental factors, including geographic location and altitude
[portable global positioning system (GPS): SP24XC,
MLR, USA], stream width and depth, surface current
velocity (Craig 1987), water temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen (portable water checker: WQC-22A, TOA,
Japan), and substrate composition (subjectively estimated
percentage cover of bedrock/boulder [ 256 mm, cobble
64–256 mm, pebble 16–64 mm, gravel 2–16 mm, coarse
sand 0.5–2 mm, and fine sand/silt \ 0.5 mm) were
determined at all sampling sites.
All sampled materials were maintained in 250 ml
plastic vials with Kahle’s solution and brought to the


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Results
Stream environments
The habitat topology and general environmental factors of
the sampling sites, including stream width and water
temperature, changed gradually as the stream flowed to the
lower reaches (Table 1). A number of waterfalls and small
cascades existed in the upper reaches of the stream. Cobble
and boulder-sized stones predominated throughout the
sampling sites, although other diverse substrates, including
pebbles, gravel, sand, leaves, mosses, and attached algae,
were found mixed with larger stones. The riparian forest
consisted of a variety of evergreen trees and grasses,
including bamboo, palm, vine, and Carex (Cyperaceae).
Aquatic macrophytes were relatively rare, partially due to
the fact that the sampling season was in late autumn, and
because of other anthropogenic influences. In the middle
and lower stream reaches, drainage areas were affected to a
moderate degree by human influence, including terraced
rice paddies, pastures, roads, and villages.
Aquatic insect fauna
On the basis of quantitative and qualitative sampling, a total
number of 216 species (the majority of which were undescribed) belonging to 139 genera, 61 families, and nine
orders were recognized in the Muonghoa Stream (Appendix
1). Trichoptera (66 species, 30.6%), Ephemeroptera (53

(Cordulegastridae), and Ophiogomphus sp. (Gomphidae)
inhabited the pool areas, whereas Brachythemis sp. 1
(Libellulidae) was found in the riffle areas.
Plecoptera: the majority of Plecoptera species were
found in the upper stream reach (sites 1–4), while Perlidae
was found throughout the sampling sites (sites 1–9).
Togoperla (Perlidae) showed a relatively wider altitudinal
distribution, and Tetropina and Neoperla (Perlidae) were
found in the middle and lower stream reaches, respectively.
Hemiptera: Hemiptera species and individual numbers
were relatively low, and only seven species were found in
the sampling sites. Heleocoris sp. (Naucoridae) and
Aphelocheirus sp. (Aphelocheiridae) were found throughout the sampling sites, whereas a number of immature
Micronecta sp. (Corixidae) individuals were collected in a
pool in the middle stream reach (site 7).
Coleoptera: 35 species of Coleoptera occurred
throughout the entire sampling sites. Elmidae was the most
species-rich taxon of Coleoptera in the Muonghoa Stream,
and members of the family inhabited the riffle areas and
were found on the surfaces of moss-covered cobble and
boulder-sized stones. Scirtidae were found in the upper
stream reach, whereas Psephenidae more richly occurred in
the lower stream reach. Haliplidae, Ptilodactylidae, Dytiscidae, Noteridae, and Lampyridae were rarely found in
restricted habitats.
Megaloptera: only one species of Corydalidae, Protohermes sp., occurred more abundantly in the middle stream
reach.
Diptera: 29 species of Diptera occurred throughout the
sampling sites. Simuliidae dominated in riffle areas in the
uppermost stream site (site 1), and the family also abundantly inhabited the upper stream reach. Chironomidae
were abundantly found throughout the sampling sites, and

sampling site (Figs. 2, 3) also indicated that the Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, and Coleoptera represented almost the
entire aquatic insect communities. In general, the aquatic
insect communities inhabiting the Muonghoa Stream were
dominated by philopotamid larvae (Dolophilodes sp. 1) or
nemourid larvae (Nemoura sp. 2) in the upper stream reach,
as well as baetid mayfly larvae (Nigrobaetis sp. 2) in the
middle and lower stream reaches (Table 2). The riffle
habitats generally yielded larger species and individual
numbers, and higher diversity indices (number of species
33.6 ± 7.2 per 2,500 cm2; individual number 293.9 ±
186.1 per 2,500 cm2; H0 2.58 ± 0.56) than in pool per run
habitats (number of species 21.0 ± 9.8 per 2,500 cm2;
individual number 156.1 ± 128.7 per 2,500 cm2;
H0 1.98 ± 0.68) at most sampling sites (Table 3). The
numbers of species and individuals at each sampling site
were significantly different (P \ 0.01 and P \ 0.05,
respectively) between the habitat types (Table 3). The
dominance indices (DI), richness indices (RI), and diversity
indices (H’) fell within the following ranges
[mean ± standard deviation (SD) 0.18–0.76 (0.42 ± 0.19),
4.13–9.19 (7.06 ± 1.45), and 1.61–3.22 (2.67 ± 0.55)],
respectively (Table 2).
Shredders represented a relatively larger proportion at
the headwater sites (sites 1 and 3) than at the other lower
stream sites, but the proportions themselves remained
rather small (Fig. 4). Scrapers and collector-gatherers were
increasingly abundant in the lower stream reach (sites 4–8).
The first two axes of the DCA ordination accounted
for the majority of the variation in the species data, with
eigenvalues of 0.69 and 0.41 for axes 1 and 2, respectively,

(Fig. 6).

Discussion
The biodiversity of aquatic insects in a stream can be
determined by a variety of ecological and environmental
factors on local, basin, and regional scales, including
habitat complexity and biogeographical history (Vinson
and Hawkins 1998; Hoang and Bae 2006). Although the

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Limnology (2008) 9:219–229

Table 2 Average number of species and individual numbers, first and
second dominant species, dominance index (DI), richness index (RI),
and diversity index (H0 ) of aquatic insects, excluding Diptera, per
Site (altitude)

Surber sample (2,500 cm2) in the Muonghoa Stream of Sapa
Highland, northern Vietnam

No. of species No. of individuals First dominant species (%) Second dominant species (%) DI

RI

H0
2.94


0.48

4.13

2.29

St. 4 (1,358 m) 46
St. 5 (1,250 m) 57

236
444

Nigrobaetis sp. 2 (16.9)
Nigrobaetis sp. 2 (26.1)

Epeorus aculatus (14.4)
Epeorus aculatus (12.8)

0.31
0.39

8.24
9.19

3.08
3.04

St. 6 (928 m)


St. 8 (404 m)

40

864

Nigrobaetis sp. 2 (62.2)

Platybaetis sp. 1 (14.0)

0.76

5.77

1.61

St. 9 (79 m)

37

199

Platybaetis sp. 1 (9.5)

Ceratopsyche sp. 7 (8.0)

0.18

6.80


Riffle

St. 1 (2,040 m)

37

24

252

94

St. 2 (1,830 m)

37

20

199

75

St. 3 (1,669 m)

20

7

106


410

St. 7 (643 m)

39

19

551

221

St. 8 (404 m)

27

25

631

233

St. 9 (79 m)

35

7

183


No. of individuals

21.0 ± 9.9

293.9 ± 186.1

Pool/run

156.1 ± 128.7

\ 0.05

spatial and temporal scales and duplicates), the taxa richness of the Sapa Highland was determined to be relatively
larger than has generally been observed in northern Vietnamese streams (e.g., Tam Dao National Park) or Northeast
Asian temperate streams (e.g., Gapyeong stream in Korea)
(Hoang and Bae 2006).
One of the unique features of the aquatic insect fauna of
the Sapa Highland is the high degree of species richness of
Trichoptera (66 species, 30.6%). The numbers of Trichoptera species tend to be generally smaller than those
of Ephemeroptera in other Vietnamese tropical streams
(Nguyen et al. 2001; Cao et al. 2008), but they are relatively larger in the majority of temperate streams (Hoang
and Bae 2006). Mey (2005) demonstrated that Mt. Fansipan and its surrounding highland areas constitute the center
of caddisfly diversity in tropical Southeast Asia.
The Odonata and Hemiptera were found to be less
species-rich than is normally found in southern Vietnamese
tropical streams. In general, the diversity of Odonata is
substantially influenced by temperature and tends to be


Limnology (2008) 9:219–229

individual abundance increased with decreasing altitude,
with the exception of the lowermost site (site 9) (Fig. 3).
The relatively smaller number of individuals at the site 9 is
probably attributable to anthropogenic influences from a
nearby town. The riffle habitats yielded approximately
double the species richness, diversity, and individual
abundance than was observed in the pool/run habitats. This
is due primarily to the larger numbers of swimmers (e.g.,
baetid mayflies) and clingers (e.g., heptageniid mayflies
and hydropsychid caddisflies) inhabiting the riffle habitats.
Functional feeding groups (FFGs) of the Muonghoa
Stream differed to some degree from those of other tropical
streams in Southeast Asia, which are influenced by riparian
forests and in-stream environmental conditions, including
substrate compositions and marginal macrophytes. Typical
tropical streams, e.g., the Dak Pri stream in southern
Vietnam (Hoang and Bae 2006), are almost completely
covered by riparian forest, and the substrates are more
heterogeneous, harboring an abundance of leaf packs and
root masses. However, the Muonghoa Stream is generally
open to sunlight and lacks abundant aquatic macrophytes in
the middle and lower stream reaches. Owing to this,
scrapers such as the Heptageniidae, Glossosomatidae, and
Psephenidae were relatively more abundant in the middle
and lower reaches. It remains unclear, however, as to the
manner in which food resources influence aquatic insect
communities, as well as the manner in which the feeding
strategies of tropical aquatic insects differ from those of the
temperate streams (Yule 1996; Motta and Uieda 2004;
Tomanova et al. 2006). According to Tomanova et al.

3. Choroterpes vittata
4. Habrophlebiodes prominens
5. Isca fascia
6. Isca sp.
7. Thraulus bishopi
8. Thraulus sp.
Family Potamanthidae
9. Potamanthus sp.
Family Ephemeridae
10. Ephemera sp.
Family Ephemerellidae
11. Cincticostella gosei
12. Cincticostella sp.
13. Epharacella sp.
14. Serratella sp.
15. Torleya arenosa
16. Torleya sp. 1
17. Torleya sp. 2
Family Austremerellidae
18. Vietnamella sp.
Family Caenidae
19. Caenis sp.
Family Isonychiidae
20. Isonychia formosana
Family Heptageniidae
21. Afronurus meo
22. Afronurus mnong
23. Epeorus hieroglyphicus
24. Epeorus aculatus


50. Nigrobaetis sp. 2
51. Platybaetis sp. 1
52. Platybaetis sp. 2
53. Procloeon sp.
Order Odonata
Family Calopterygidae
54. Mnais sp.
55. Neurobasis sp.
Family Euphaeidae
56. Bayadera sp.
57. Euphaea sp.
Family Aeshnidae
58. Aeschnophlebia sp.
Family Cordulegastridae
59. Anotogaster sp.
Family Gomphidae
60. Ophiogomphus sp.
Family Libellulidae
61. Brachythemis sp. 1
62. Brachythemis sp. 2
Order Plecoptera
Family Nemouridae
63. Ampinemura sp.
64. Nemoura sp. 1
65. Nemoura sp. 2
66. Protonemura sp.
67. Sphaeronemoura sp.


Limnology (2008) 9:219–229

86. Gyrinus sp.
Family Haliplidae
87. Haliplus sp.
Family Dytiscidae
88. Hydrovatus sp.
89. Rhantus sp.
Family Hydrophilidae
90. Berosus sp.
91. Enochrus sp.
92. Hydrobius sp.
93. Hydrochara sp.
94. Paracymus sp.
Family Hydraenidae
95. Limnebius sp.
96. Ochthebius sp.
Family Lampyridae
97. Luciola sp.
Family Noteridae
98. Hydrocoptus sp.
Family Sciritidae
99. Cyphon sp.
Family Ptilodactylidae
100. Stenocolus sp.
Family Dryopidae

227

101. Helichus sp.
Family Psephenidae
102. Eubrianax sp. 1

128. Tipula sp. 2
129. Tipula sp. 3
Family Blephariceridae
130. Blepharicera sp.
131. Philorus sp.
Family Psychodidae
132. Pericoma sp.
Family Simuliidae
133. Prosimulium sp.
134. Simulium sp.
Family Ceratopogonidae
135. Bezzia sp.
Family Chironomidae
136. Chironominae sp. 1
137. Chironominae sp. 2
138. Chironominae sp. 3
139. Chironominae sp. 4
140. Chironominae sp. 5
141. Chironominae sp. 6
142. Chironominae sp. 7

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228

143. Chironominae sp. 8
144. Orthocladiinae sp.
145. Tanypodinae sp. 1
146. Tanypodinae sp. 2

172. Hydropsyche sp. 4
173. Hydropsyche sp. 5
174. Hydropsyche sp. 6
175. Hydatomaicus sp.
176. Hydromanicus sp. 1
177. Hydromanicus sp. 2
178. Macrostemum sp.
179. Parapsyche sp. 1
180. Parapsyche sp. 2
181. Potamyia sp. 1
182. Potamyia sp. 2
183. Trichomacronema sp.
Family Polycentropodidae
184. Neureclipsis sp.
185. Plectrocnemia sp. 1
186. Plectrocnemia sp. 2
187. Polycentropus sp.
Family Psychomyiidae
188. Lype sp.

123

Limnology (2008) 9:219–229

189. Psychomyia sp. 1
190. Psychomyia sp. 2
191. Tinodes sp.
Family Philopotamidae
192. Chimarra sp. 1
193. Chimarra sp. 2

214. Ceraclea sp.
215. Triplectides sp.
Order Lepidoptera
Family Pyralidae
216. Parapoynx sp.

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