Developing Learners’ Academic Writing
Skills in Higher Education: A Study for
Educational Reform
Nahla N. Bacha
Lebanese American University, PO Box 36, Byblos, Lebanon
L2 writers are known to face problems in developing their writing skills at the univer-
sity level.These problems are even more accentuatedwith L1 Arabic non-native speak-
ers of English in required English composition courses. Some researchhas shown that
with low motivation levels the process can further be a very difficult and unrewarding
one for both the learner and the teacher.However, students need to develop their writ-
ing skills in order to cope with their university coursework in the medium of English.
This necessitatesthe searchfor learningtasks thatmeet student needs in a wider educa-
tional context. This paper outlines some of the writing theories proposed by research-
ers that have contributed to current L2 teaching/learning classroom methodologies.
Drawing upon the insights gained from these theories,one EFL freshman composition
classroom learning experience in doing practical research with L1 Arabic non-native
speakers of English is described. Results indicated that the experience was not only a
very highly motivating basis for developing students’ writing skills but alsoa valuable
one for students in acquiring necessaryacademicresearchknow-how. Implications are
made for the teaching/learning of writing and programme development in light of the
post-war educational reform in Lebanon.
Introduction
Developing learners’ writing skills in L2 has been of concern for a long time in
tertiary education (Belcher & Braine, 1995; Jordan, 1997). Students studying in insti-
tutions of higher learning in the medium of English, which may not be their native
language, have been found to face problems mainly in writing, making them unable
to cope with the institution’s literacy expectations. However, these ‘disadvantaged’
students may be able to develop writing skills significantly with positive instruc-
tionalattitudestowardsthe errors they makeand an awarenesson the teachers’ part
of learner problems (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Shaughnessy, 1977; Zamel, 1983).
The research literature in L2 writing contains a great range of different

techniques such as collaborative discipline-based writing classes, peer work and
teacher conferencing (Connor, 1996; Fulwiler & Young, 1990; Grabe & Kaplan,
1996; Leki, 1995b; Swales, 1990).
The writing problems for the students attending the English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) freshman programme at the Lebanese American University
(LAU) (a programme set up to help ‘low’ language proficiency students) are
very similar to the foregoing. In addition, because they have had their elemen-
tary, primary and secondary schooling in the medium of French, or English or
French and English equally, the problems may also extend to negative influenc-
ing factors not only from L1 Arabic but also L2 French (Bacha, 2000a; Yazigi,
1991).
More significantly, few students following a course of study in the medium
of English at university level in Lebanon are motivated to develop their writ-
ing skills, except when directly related to their major course of study at the
university (Yazigi, 1991). In a recent survey carried out on a total population
of 1658 students attending the EFL programme at LAU in the four required
English composition courses, motivation was reported to be significantly the
main cause for their writing difficulties when compared to use of required
textbooks, past and present classroom practices, evaluation techniques, nega-
tive interference of Arabic and/or French, and individual learning styles
(Bacha, 2000a).
In addition to the above problems, an overriding concern by many institu-
tions of higher education is in revisiting their EFL programmes in light of the
recent developments in the new national English pre-university educational
reform in post-war Lebanon. This new national English curriculum is spon-
sored by the Ministry of Education in conjunction with the National Center
for Research and Development and approved by the Council of Ministers in
1994. As part of this reform, all schools must either adopt French or English as
the medium of instruction in addition to students learning the native
language, Arabic (Shaaban & Ghaith, 1997). If schools opt to choose English as

implementing a thematic content-based approach;
developing native-like proficiency in English stressing fluency and then
accuracy;
referring to the objectives of the English language curriculum that have
clear and measurable performance tasks;
presenting language in a proper cultural context (cultural awareness
objectives);
highlighting the role of group work in the development of communica-
tive language skills (in the cooperative learning modelof classroominter-
action);
having practical implications of cooperation between English teachers
and those of other subject areas and a comprehensive staff development
program by the National Center for Research and Development.
(NCERD, 1994)
The curriculum is now in its third year of implementation, and although there
are no published rigorous research results to date as to its relative success, the
experience has indicated some positive feedback in the learning situation
(personal communication with teacher trainers, 1999).
Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 163
Aim and Significance of the Study
The purpose of the present study, therefore, is to describe one classroom
task-based learning experience that could help to develop EFL students’
academic writing skills.
The significance of the present study is that it gives a first opportunity to
follow up on the content-based approach in language teaching and learning
adopted by the Ministry of Education, even though here on a very small scale. It
is also a worthwhile study in reinforcing many of the teachers’ views that
students at this ‘lower’ level of English proficiency can deal with ‘research’
tasks often thought too difficult for them. Most importantly, the research task
adopted in the study may not only motivate these learners to improve their

Figure 1 Kinneavy’s communication triangle (1971 in 1980)
1990). Moffet’s (1968) model focused on the writer, audience and the different
types of texts and was mainly influential in the American elementary and
secondary schools. The process approach, as we know it today, had its roots in
this expressionist model. The cognitivist model (Flower & Hayes, 1981) although
overlapping with that of the expressionists, focused more on the rhetorical
modes of discourse as end products and showed the relation between syntax,
semantics and pragmatics. In this sense, there was more emphasis on both the
process and the product in writing. The approach was more influential at the
secondary and tertiary levels of writing. The interactionists focused more on the
reader’s schemata (that is, knowledge of the world), and thus writing was
focused more for a particular audience. The social constructionists spoke of
discourse communities in which the writer had to take into consideration the
norms and expectations of the tasks and writing models required. For example,
in an academic context, the writer’s intended audience are those who expect
scholastic forms such as research papers, reports and the like which are organ-
ised and worded according to standardised academic criteria within the context
of the academic community. Thus, a research or term paper must conform to
certain academic, organisational, language and content criteria which may vary
from one discipline to another.
Although L1 theories influenced many L2 theories and instruction, research-
ers noted that L2 non-native students’ needs differ (Johns, 1990). Four instruc-
tional methods have been influential in EFL: controlled, rhetorical, process and
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and specifically English for Academic
Purposes (EAP), on which the present study draws. First, controlled writing
emphasised pattern practice and grammar accuracy based on the audio-lingual
approach (Fries, 1949, in Kroll, 1990). Second, the rhetorical approach focused on
models of writingabove the sentence level and advocated the different rhetorical
modes of narration, cause–effect, comparison–contrast,argumentation, etc., and
took into account the cultural and linguistic background of the writer as possible

students had followed a pre-university course of study in either French or
English and were now enrolled in various majors in one of the four disciplines:
Arts and Sciences, Business, Engineering and Architecture, and Pharmacy. The
students’ ages ranged between 17 and 19 with 20 females and 10 males, 18 were
French-educated and the rest English-educated. However, since the focus of the
present study is to concentrate on the process of writing, age, gender, major, L2
or L3 were not influencing variables or of concern in the study.
Procedure
Over the last month (January) of the Fall 1999 semester (October to January)
and based on the pilot study done in the previous semester, a research essay writ-
ing activity was refined and better clarified for the students using models as
guides for each step in the writing process. The freshman English 101 course
involves writing essays of different rhetorical modes, drafted and finalised in
class time according to the process/product approach with reference to the read-
ings from the course textbook (Leki, 1995a). The study focuses on the last of the
four essays students write in the course. The essay is in the comparison–contrast
rhetorical mode, often found difficult and uninteresting for the students and thus
the challenge to revisit it in the learning situation.
The study specifically is comprised of eight steps, discussed and illustrated
below with one student’s work chosen at random (see Appendices). Results of
the relative success of the study are then discussed.
Step 1: Choosing a topic
Choice of topic was left to each individual student. Some chose to relate it to
their major at the university in the various schools mentioned above, while
others to their personal interest. In summary, the topics could be grouped under
five broad headings given here in order of popularity: business (e.g. mobile
phones, computers, Internet, cars, etc.), politics (e.g. Queen Elizabeth, Winston
Churchill, labour market, television, sportsand money, etc.); health (e.g. cloning,
diets, nutrition, disorders, sex, smoking, stress, etc.); social (e.g. child crime,
divorce, marriage, Marilyn Monroe, romantic movies, sex discrimination, etc.);

chosen, tape it if permission were granted andtranscribe it (see Appendix C). The
pre-, during and post-steps of interviewing were discussed with the class prior to
the interviewing process. Scheduling and confirming the interview, wearing the
correct apparel, being respectful, relevant and concise during the interview and
thanking the interviewer after the interview were stressed, as was accurate tran-
scription.
Step 4: Summarising an article
A third source needed for their research essay was to summarise a relevant,
credible article from the Internet. This exercise reinforced their summary skills
(see Appendix D).
Only significant evidence from the sources was to be used in the research essay,
which stressed students’ decision-making skills concerning relevant inclusion of
content. This was considered an important cognitive exercise in research writing
as most students from their pre-university schooling have been known to include
more information than necessary, a characteristic of the learning culture.
Step 5: Writing the first draft
The comparison–contrastformat was discussed and theblock- and chain-organi-
sational models were examined (see Appendix E of one type of organisational
Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 167
model). Students were asked to choose one or two questions from the survey and
write an essay of two body paragraphs mentioning the similarities and differ-
ences they found concerning one variable, following the model outline. For
example, in the ‘Internet Addiction’ paper, the student found that although male
as female students differ in owning a computer, males use the Internet as often as
females. Incorporating relevant material from the article, interview and survey
in the essay would help students read material of their choice and at their indi-
vidual literacy level and capacities.
Students were then asked to mention the statistical finding as well as to inter-
pret the results in the light of the interview, the article and/or their own experi-
ence. They found interpretation of the ideas the most difficult to do, as they had

findings with their colleagues in the final oral class report. The outline and
summary of the sample student’s work have not been included, not being the
specific focus of the present paper.
168 Language and Education
Results and Discussion
The research activityusing the essay asa frameworkproduced much better prod-
ucts than any of the essay writing during the semester or in previous semesters.This
was reflected in the grades based on evaluating the writing according to the ESL
CompositionProfile ofJacobs
et al.
(1981).When compared to the three essays given
in the same semester, an average class writing grade of 77% was attained on the
research essay compared to an average of 63% for essay 1, 68% for essay 2 and 70%
for essay 3. What is important though is not that the students progressed over the
semester, which is probably expected, but that the average final essay grades over
the past three semesters were between 68–73% even when take-home essays had
been given. Also, the grades on the research writing activity were higher than the
teacher’s expectations. It was expected that an average of 70% would be attained
with very few grades above 80%. What is more revealing than the average grades
can show, is that 10 students gained grades above 80% (three 90%), five in the 60s
and the rest in the 70s, a spread of grades not previously attained.
A more significant result is the fact that, this time, some students who were
considered ‘lower’ achievers at the beginning of the semester were able to attain
grades above 80%. The student sample essay earned an 85% final product score
accordingtothe freshman English 101 objectives, while the other three essays writ-
ten by the same student scored 60%, 70% and 65% respectively, not very satisfac-
tory by the institution’s standards. These three grades also clearly show a (not
uncommon) regression in the third essay, in which often fatigue, topic choice, time
and other variables may influence the writing process (Kroll, 1990; Yazigi, 1991).
When interviewed on their experience with the research task, the students

that research should be learned at a much later stage of the English curriculum;
however, the study does indicate that it is possible for students to cope with
developing their writing skills through research. The ‘research essay’ is not,
however, the only way to help motivate and develop learners’ writing. Different
teaching/learning techniques can be used to exploit the essay (Hunter-Carsch,
1990) as a framework for discipline-related tasks. Discipline-related discourse
can be drawn upon to motivate students to want to improve their writing skills
and students can interact with various types of resources in a much more
dynamic way. These resources need to be identified, researched and included in
a curriculum which enables the learners to develop their writing proficiency.
Conclusion
The purpose of the present study was to identify writing theories which could
be drawn upon to help less proficient learners improve their language skills,
specifically writing through a practical research task. Kinneavy’s writing model
(1971 in 1980), mentioned earlier, is perhaps still relevant today to the latter. The
suggested model of the research paper based on Kinneavy’s model (see Figure 2)
emphasises the reciprocal relationship between the reader and the writer in the
production and processing of a text – in this case the research essay – in confor-
mity with the academic community and its conventions concerning research
writing. Although the reader in the present study was not involved as such, the
reader is included in the diagram as presumably research is to be shared ulti-
mately with others in the same discourse community that writers must conform
to. More precisely as it relates to the present study, the inverted triangle frame-
work could be seen to represent the overall approach to any writing task, which
begins with broad, general assumptions or research questions, moving on to
more specific theses and evidence. The model could be adapted to other types of
research and/or writing tasks in the academic community.
Having students interact in practical research, even in a basic freshman
English composition course, and using the essay as a framework proved initially
to be a valuable learning experience, one in which students learned a disci-

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Major: ___________________
1) Do you have a personal computer at home?
Yes No
2) Do you usually work on the Internet?
Yes No
3) How many hours do you spend on the Internet per week?
4 8 15
20 35 More
Other Specify ____________
4) How do you rate yourself as an Internet user?
Hardly Use It Average User
Heavy User Addicted User
Other Specify ________________
5) How much does the use of the Internet affect your social life?
A Lot Some
A Little None
6) Do you think that the heavy use of the Internet has some kind of effect on a
person’s social life? Explain.
Appendix B: Analysing, Interpreting and Arranging Data (n = 50)
After computing the results, the student made a summary statement appear-
ing after each relevant question. Tables prepared by the student have been
included only for questions 1 and 2 for illustrative purposes.
(1) Do you have a personal computer at home?
It seems that more males than females have a personal computer at home.
Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 173
Table 1 Percentage of male and female students with personal home computer
Total% Male Female
78
n
= 25

considered unimportant and irrelevant.
Appendix C: Transcribed Interview
Person interviewed: owner of an Internet company
Question 1: What is your opinion about the Internet?
Answer 1: When it comes to the Internet, you cannot but give a general opin-
ion of it. The Internet is a very useful source from which a person
can get various information about various topics. The Internet
provides amusement as well as education, it is really great.
Question 2: Do you think that the Internet is more helpful in the advantages it
presents or it is more harmful in the negative sides it shows?
Answer 2: No doubt that everything has advantages and disadvantages,
even the Internet. However, the advantages of the Internet exceed
by far its disadvantages. A person can benefit from the Internet
through its database,communication (e-mail and other communi-
cation software), entertainment, etc …
On the other hand, we see the disadvantages are that it mainly
hurts the eyes (staring at the monitor), and some people consider it
a waste of time and money. I disagree. Well, it is never a waste of
time because you always benefit one way or the other, either by
getting data, or by meeting new friends.
174 Language and Education
Table 2 Percentage of male and female students working on the Internet
Total% Male Female
50
n
= 16
53.33%
32%
n
= 9

revealed that the craving to go online is similar to the craving that smokers have
for cigarettes. Middle-aged women, the unemployed, and Internet ‘newbies’ are
most prone to Internet addiction, says Young. Some experts warn that Net addic-
tion can worsen depression and cause withdrawal from reality. Others see the
Net as the latest scapegoat for the human urge to overdo.
Appendix E: Model Outline
Introduction
– Arouse interest
– Place your topic in context and give background information
– Define any key terms
– Thesis statement
Although there are differences between males and females in owning a computer at
home, there are a few similarities in the use of the Internet.
I. Difference in owning a personal computer
A. Results from survey
B. Support from interview
C. Support from article
D. Your Interpretation
II. Similarity in use
A. Results from survey
B. Support from interview
C. Support from article
D. Your Interpretation
Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 175
Conclusion
– Restate thesis statement
– Refer to background mentioned in the introduction
– Conclude with a closing remark
Appendix F: Final Practical Research Essay
Title: Internet Addiction

between males and females on the use of the Internet
. From the survey made
(Khneisser), 53% of the males use the Internet and 46.7% do not use it. As for the
females, 45% use the Internet and 55% do not use it (0–9% constitutes a similar-
ity). It seems that even though more males own a personal computer than
females, the females seem to have the same urge to use the Internet as the males
do. Why do we have such results? Seeing how wide the Internet is growing these
days, and how much it is needed, it is expected thatboth males and females use it.
They need the Internet for research, as it is filled with all kind of information
about millions of topics for university projects. It also gives us all the news
around the world, such as ‘LBCI news on Internet’, all kind of new updates to
176 Language and Education
keep track of everything that is happening all over the globe, like updates in
sports, technology, news, political issues and other information. So, there is noth-
ing strange about the similarity between males and females on the use of the
Internet because all this information is in the interest of both sexes, not to forget
the fact of meeting and making new friends. A look at the article only shows us
the negative side of the Internet because of the addicted users that make it look
bad. If we take a look at the interview, however, the advantages of the Internet
exceed by far its disadvantages.
Body paragraph 3: Additional comments
A brief look at the other questions shows that 33% of the males and 30% of the
females use the Internet around 4 hours a week and about 36.7% of the males and
40% of the females are average uses (4–8 hours a week are rated average users),
but no one seems to use the Internet more than 30 hours per week which means
we have no addicted users.
Conclusion
To conclude, although there are differences between males and females on the
owning a personal computer at home, there are few similarities on the use of the
Internet . Even though some females do not own a personal computer, they are