1
The Warm-Up
After studying the chapter, you should be able to:
■
Describe what exercise physiology is and discuss why you need to study it.
■
Identify the organizational structure of this text.
■
Differentiate between exercise responses and training adaptations.
■
List and explain the six categories of exercise whose responses are discussed throughout this
book.
■
List and explain the factors involved in interpreting an exercise response.
■
Describe the graphic patterns that physiological variables may exhibit in response to different
categories of exercise and as a result of adaptations to training.
■
List and explain the training principles.
■
Describe the differences and similarities between health-related and sport-specifi c physical
fi tness.
■
Defi ne and explain periodization.
■
Defi ne detraining.
■
Relate exercise and exercise training to Selye’s Theory of Stress.
1
Plowman_Chap01.indd 1Plowman_Chap01.indd 1 11/6/2009 6:58:03 PM11/6/2009 6:58:03 PM
2

probably taken place within the life span of your grand-
parents.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower suffered a heart attack •
on September 23, 1955. At that time, the normal medi-
cal treatment was 6 weeks of bed rest and a lifetime of
curtailed activity (Hellerstein, 1979). Eisenhower’s
rehabilitation, including a return to golf, was, if not
revolutionary, certainly progressive. Today, cardiac
patients are mobilized within days and frequently train
for and safely run marathons.
The 4-minute mile was considered an unbreakable •
limit until May 6, 1954, when Roger Bannister ran the
mile in 3:59.4. Hundreds of runners (including some
high school boys) have since accomplished that feat.
The men’s world record for the mile, which was set in
1999, is 3:43.13. The women’s mile record of 4:12.56,
set in 1996, is approaching the old 4-minute “barrier.”
The 800-m run was banned from the Olympics from •
1928 to 1964 for women because females were con-
sidered to be “too weak and delicate” to run such a
“long” distance. In the 1950s, when the 800-m run was
reintroduced for women in Europe, ambulances were
stationed at the fi nish line, motors running, to carry
off the casualties (Ullyot, 1976). In 1963, the women’s
world marathon record (then not an Olympic sport for
women) was 3:37.07, a time now commonly achieved
by females not considered to be elite athletes. The
women’s world record (set in 2003) was 2:15.25, an
improvement of 1:21:42 (37.5%).
In 1954, Kraus and Hirschland published a report

vide all the information a prospective professional will
need. However, knowledge of exercise physiology and
an appreciation for practice based on research fi ndings
help set professionals in the fi eld apart from mere prac-
titioners. It is one thing to be able to lead step aerobic
routines. It is another to be able to design routines based
on predictable short- and long-term responses of given
class members, to evaluate those responses, and then to
modify the sessions as needed. To become respected pro-
fessionals in fi elds related to exercise science and physical
education, students need to learn exercise physiology in
order to:
1. Understand how the basic physiological functioning
of the human body is modifi ed by short- and long-
term exercise as well as the mechanisms causing
these changes. Unless one knows what responses are
Plowman_Chap01.indd 2Plowman_Chap01.indd 2 11/6/2009 6:58:07 PM11/6/2009 6:58:07 PM
CHAPTER 1 • The Warm-Up
3
normal, one cannot recognize an abnormal response
or adjust to it.
2. Provide quality physical education programs in schools
that stimulate children and adolescents both physically
and intellectually. To become lifelong exercisers, stu-
dents need to understand how physical activity can
benefi t them, why they take physical fi tness tests, and
what to do with fi tness test results.
3. Apply the results of scientifi c research to maximize
health, rehabilitation, and/or athletic performance in
a variety of subpopulations.

ing basic information.
More exercise physiology research has been done with
college-age males and elite male athletes than with any
other portion of the population. Nonetheless, wherever
possible, we provide information about both sexes as well
as children and adolescents at one end of the age spec-
trum and older adults at the other, throughout the unit.
Each unit is independent of the other three, although
the body obviously functions as a whole. Your course,
therefore, may sequence these units of study in a different
order other than just going from Chapters 1 to 22. After
this fi rst chapter, your instructor may start with any unit
and then move in any order through the other three. This
concept is represented by the circle in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 also illustrates two other important
points: (1) all of the systems respond to exercise in an
integrated fashion and (2) the responses of the systems
are interdependent. The metabolic system produces
cellular energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). ATP is used for muscular contraction. For the
cells (including muscle cells) to produce ATP, they must
be supplied with oxygen and fuel (foodstuffs). The respi-
ratory system brings oxygen into the body via the lungs,
and the cardiovascular system distributes oxygen and
nutrients to the cells of the body via the blood pumped
by the heart through the blood vessels. During exercise,
all these functions must increase. The neuroendocrine-
immune system regulates and integrates both resting
and exercise body functions.
Each unit is divided into multiple chapters depending

maximize human physical potential.
Plowman_Chap01.indd 3Plowman_Chap01.indd 3 11/6/2009 6:58:07 PM11/6/2009 6:58:07 PM
4
When appropriate, calculations are worked out in exam-
ples. The appendices and endpapers provide supplemen-
tal information. For example, Appendix A contains a
listing of the basic physical quantities, units of measure-
ment, and conversions within the Système International
d’Unités (SI or metric system of measurement commonly
used in scientifi c work) and between the metric and Eng-
lish measurement systems. In the front of the book, you
of exercise physiology often have. These include selected
topics in athletic training, cardiac or other rehabilitation,
coaching, personal training, physical therapy, and/or
teaching. An additional feature is the Check Your Com-
prehension box. The Check Your Comprehension boxes
are problems for you to complete. Occasionally, the Check
your Comprehension boxes will be clinically relevant.
Answers to these problems are presented in Appendix C.
Cardiovascular-Respiratory System
Circulation:
• Transportation of oxygen and energy
substrates to muscle tissue
• Transportation of waste products
Respiration:
• Intake of air into body
• Diffusion of oxygen and carbon
dioxide at lungs and muscle tissue
• Removal of carbon dioxide from body
Neuroendocrine-Immune System

yourself. Enjoy the voyage.
Ogawa, T., R. J. Spina, W. H. Martin,
W. M. Kohrt, K. B. Schectman, &
J. O. Holloszy: Effects of aging,
sex, and physical training on car-
diovascular responses to exercise.
Circulation. 86:494–503 (1992).
E
xercise professionals and exer-
cise participants have long
been interested in how personal
characteristics infl uence the body’s
response to exercise. In this study,
the authors investigated the effects
of age, sex, and physical training on
cardiovascular responses to exercise.
They separated 110 healthy subjects
into eight groups based on three
variables: age (young [mid-20s] or
old [mid-60s]), sex (male or female),
and physical training (trained or
untrained). The table below identi-
fi es the eight groups based on these
three subject characteristics.
Males Females
Young Trained (T) Trained (T)
Untrained (UT) Untrained (UT)
Old Trained (T) Trained (T)
Untrained (UT) Untrained (UT)
Results of this study are shown

relationships in order to recognize
normal and abnormal responses to
exercise and respond accordingly.
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)
230
200
170
140
110
80
50
230
200
170
140
110
80
50
Sedentary men Trained men
Sedentary women Trained women
Older
Rest 25 50 75 100 25Rest 50 75 100
%VO
2
max
Younger
•
The Effects of Age, Sex, and Physical Training on
the Response to Exercise
FOCUS ON

is the pattern of change in physiological variables during
a single acute bout of physical exertion. A physiological
variable is any measurable bodily function that changes or
varies under different circumstances. For example, heart
rate is a variable with which you are undoubtedly already
familiar. You probably also know that heart rate increases
during exercise. However, to state simply that heart rate
increases during exercise does not describe the full pat-
tern of the response. For example, the heart rate response
to a 400-m sprint is different from the heart rate response
to a 50-mi bike ride. To fully understand the response of
heart rate or any other variable, we need more informa-
tion about the exercise itself. Three factors are consid-
ered when determining the acute response to exercise:
1. the exercise modality
2. the exercise intensity
3. the exercise duration
Exercise Modality
Exercise modality (or mode) means the type of activity
or the particular sport. For example, rowing has a very
different effect on the cardiovascular-respiratory system
than does football. Modalities are often classifi ed by the
type of energy demand (aerobic or anaerobic), the major
muscle action (continuous and rhythmical, dynamic resis-
tance, or static), or a combination of the energy system
and muscle action. Walking, cycling, and swimming are
examples of continuous, rhythmical aerobic activities;
jumping, sprinting, and weight lifting are anaerobic and/
or dynamic resistance activities. To determine the effects
of exercise on a particular variable, you must fi rst know

If an absolute workload is used and the individuals being
tested vary in fi tness, then some individuals will be chal-
lenged more than others. Generally, those who are more
fi t in terms of the component being tested will be less
challenged and so will score better than those who are
less fi t and more challenged. For example, suppose that
the exercise task is to lift 80 lb in a bench press as many
times as possible, as in the YMCA bench press endurance
test. As illustrated in Table 1.1, if the individuals tested
were able to lift a maximum of 160, 100, and 80 lb once,
respectively, it would be anticipated that the fi rst indi-
vidual could do more repetitions of the 80-lb lift than
anyone else. Similarly, the second individual would be
expected to do more repetitions than the third, and the
third individual would be expected to do only one rep-
etition. In this case, the load is not submaximal for all
the individuals, because Terry can lift the weight only
one time (making it a maximal lift for Terry). Nonethe-
less, the use of an absolute load allows for the ranking of
individuals based on the results of a single exercise test
and is therefore often used in physical fi tness screenings
or tests.
The second way to describe submaximal exercise is
as a percentage of an individual’s maximum. A load may
be set at a percentage of the person’s maximal heart rate,
maximal ability to use oxygen, or maximal workload.
This value is called a relative workload because it is
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CHAPTER 1 • The Warm-Up
7

Exercise duration is simply a description of the length
of time the muscular action continues. Duration may be
as short as 1–3 seconds for an explosive action, such as a
jump, or as long as 12 hours for a full triathlon (3.2-km
[2-mi] swim, 160-km [100-mi] bicycle ride, and 42.2-km
[26.2-mi] run). In general, the shorter the duration, the
higher the intensity that can be used. Conversely, the longer
the duration, the lower the intensity that can be sustained.
Thus, the amount of homeostatic disruption depends on
both the duration and the intensity of the exercise.
Exercise Categories
This textbook combines the descriptors of exercise
modality, intensity, and duration into six primary catego-
ries of exercise. Where suffi cient information is available,
the exercise response patterns for each are described and
discussed:
1. Short-term, light to moderate submaximal aerobic exer-
cise. Exercises of this type are rhythmical and con-
tinuous in nature and utilize aerobic energy. They
are performed at a constant workload for 10–15
minutes at approximately 30–69% of maximal work
capacity.
2. Long-term, moderate to heavy submaximal aerobic exercise.
Exercises in this category also utilize rhythmical and
TABLE 1.1 Absolute and Relative Submaximal Workloads
Absolute Workload Relative Workload
Maximal lift
No. of times
80 lb can be lifted
75% of

continuous muscle action. Although predominantly
aerobic, anaerobic energy utilization may be involved.
The duration is generally between 30 minutes and
4 hours at constant workload intensities ranging from
55% to 89% of maximum.
3. Incremental aerobic exercise to maximum. Incremental
exercises start at light loads and continue by a prede-
termined sequence of progressively increasing work-
loads to an intensity that the exerciser cannot sustain
or increase further. This point becomes the maximum
(100%). The early stages are generally light and aer-
obic, but as the exercise bout continues, anaerobic
energy involvement becomes signifi cant. Each work-
load/work rate is called a stage, and each stage may
last from 1 to 10 minutes, although 3 minutes is most
common. Incremental exercise bouts typically last
between 5 and 30 minutes for the total duration.
4. Static exercise. Static exercises involve muscle contrac-
tions that produce an increase in muscle tension and
energy expenditure but do not result in meaningful
movement. Static contractions are measured as some
percentage of the muscle’s maximal voluntary con-
traction (MVC), the maximal force that the muscle
can exert. The intent is for the workload to remain
constant, but fatigue sometimes makes that impos-
sible. The duration is inversely related to the percent-
age of maximal voluntary contraction (%MVC) that is
being held but generally ranges from 2 to 10 minutes.
5. Dynamic resistance exercise. These exercises utilize mus-
cle contractions that exert suffi cient force to overcome

3. A new mother pushes her baby in a stroller in the
park for 20 minutes.
4. A freshman in high school takes the FITNESSGRAM®
PACER test (Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular
Endurance Run) test in physical education class.
5. An adult male completes a minitriathlon in 2:35.
6. A basketball player executes a fast break ending
with a slam dunk.
7. A volleyball player performs two sets of six squats.
8. A cyclist completes a 25-mi time trial in 50:30.6
9. An exercise physiology student completes a
graded exercise test on a cycle ergometer with
3 minute stages and +50 kg
.
min
−1
per stage to
determine V
.
O
2
max.
10. A barrel racer warms up her horse for 15 minutes
prior to competition.
11. A middle-aged individual performs 18 repetitions
in the YMCA bench press endurance test.
12. A college athlete participates in a 400-m track race.
Check your answers in Appendix C.
TABLE 1.2 Color and Icon
Interpretation for

Minimal increase
during exercise;
rebound rise
in recovery
y axis = variable name and unit
Constant workload/workrate
Recovery
A
B
C
D
E
F
FIGURE 1.2. Graphic Patterns and Verbal Descriptors for
Constant Workload/Work Rate Exercise Responses.
Maximal Voluntary Contraction (MVC) The maximal
force that the muscle can exert.
1-RM The maximal weight that an individual can lift
once during a dynamic resistance exercise.
that is measured with its appropriate unit of measure-
ment. Examples are heart rate (b
.
min
−1
), blood pressure
(mmHg), and oxygen consumption (mL
.
kg
.
min

terns of response routinely result from incremental
exercise to maximum. Panel 1.3F shows two versions
of the U-shaped pattern. You may see either a complete
or truncated (shortened) U, either upright or inverted.
No specifi c patterns are shown for very-short-term,
high-intensity anaerobic exercise because these tend to
be either abrupt rectilinear or curvilinear increases or
decreases.
Exercise Response Interpretation
When interpreting the response of variables to any of the
exercise categories, keep four factors in mind:
1. characteristics of the exerciser
2. appropriateness of the selected exercise
3. accuracy of the selected exercise
4. environmental and experimental conditions
Plowman_Chap01.indd 9Plowman_Chap01.indd 9 11/6/2009 6:58:14 PM11/6/2009 6:58:14 PM
10
Characteristics of the Exerciser
Certain characteristics of the exerciser can affect the
magnitude of the exercise response. The basic pattern of
the response is similar, but the magnitude of the response
may vary with the individual’s sex, age (child/adolescent,
adult, older adult), and/or physiological status, such as
health and training level. Where possible, these differ-
ences will be pointed out.
Appropriateness of the Selected Exercise
The exercise test used should match the physiological sys-
tem or physical fi tness component one is evaluating. For
example, you cannot determine cardiovascular endurance
using dynamic resistance exercise. However, if the goal

oratory and fi eld tests will be discussed in this text.
Environmental and Experimental Conditions
Many physiological variables are affected by environmental
conditions, most notably temperature, relative humidity
(RH), and barometric pressure. Normal responses typically
occur at neutral conditions (~20–29 °C [68–84 °F]; 50%
RH; and 630–760 mmHg, respectively). Likewise, when
a response to exercise is described, it is assumed that the
exerciser had adequate sleep, was not ill, had not recently
eaten or exercised, and was not taking any prescription
Rectilinear rise with
a plateau at maximum
A
Rectilinear rise with
two breakpoints
No change or a
change so small it
has no physiological
significance
Positive curvilinear rise
Negative curvilinear
change
U-shaped curve;
truncated inverted U
y axis = variable name and unit
Incremental workload/workrate
B
C
D
E

focus; it is that portion of physical fi tness directed toward
optimizing athletic performance. Figure 1.4 shows that
sport-specifi c (athletic) fi tness (outer circle) expands from
the core of health-related physical fi tness. Higher levels
of cardiovascular-respiratory endurance and anaerobic
power and capacity are generally needed for successful
performance. Body composition values may be more spe-
cifi c than health levels in order to optimize performance.
The muscular fi tness attributes of power, balance, and
fl exibility are frequently more specifi c in certain athletic
performances than for health.
To determine the importance of each component of
fi tness and develop a sport-related fi tness program, you
fi rst analyze the specifi c sport’s physiological demands.
Then, the athlete is evaluated in terms of those require-
ments. These elements allow for a specifi cally designed,
individualized program. This program should:
Work specifi c musculature while achieving a balance
•
between agonistic and antagonistic muscle groups
Incorporate all motor fi tness attributes that are needed•
Use the muscles in the biomechanical patterns of the •
sport
Match the cardiovascular and metabolic energy require-•
ments of the sport
Attend realistically to body composition issues•
The demands of the sport will not change to accommo-
date the athlete. The athlete must be the one to meet the
demands of the sport to be successful.
Putting all of these elements together, physi-

exercise sessions designed to improve physiological
function for better health or sport performance.
Health-Related Physical Fitness That portion of
physical fi tness directed toward the prevention of or
rehabilitation from disease, the development of a
high level of functional capacity for the necessary
and discretionary tasks of life, and the maintenance
or enhancement of physiological functions in biolog-
ical systems that are not involved in performance but
are infl uenced by habitual activity.
Hypokinetic Diseases Diseases caused by and/or
associated with lack of physical activity.
Sport-specifi c Physical Fitness That portion of physical
fi tness directed toward optimizing athletic performance.
Physical Fitness A physiological state of well-being
that provides the foundation for the tasks of daily
living, a degree of protection against hypokinetic
disease, and a basis for participation in sport.
Plowman_Chap01.indd 11Plowman_Chap01.indd 11 11/6/2009 6:58:15 PM11/6/2009 6:58:15 PM
12
dose-response describes the health-related changes
obtained for the particular level of physical activity
performed. Likewise, for physical fi tness and health,
the dose-response describes the health-related changes
that occur with experimentally documented changes or
levels of fi tness (Haskell, 2007). These experimentally
derived relationships can be graphed and are often called
curves. Although it is clear, for example, that exercise/
physical activity reduces the risk of many diseases and
improves cardiovascular function, it is far less clear what

Body composition
values that will
optimize
performance
Body composition
values associated
with low risk of
hypokinetic
disease
Power
Muscular
strength
Anaerobic power
and capacity
Health-related physical fitness
Aerobic power
and capacity
Aerobic power
FIGURE 1.4. Physical Fitness.
Physical fi tness consists of health-related physical fi tness (inner circle) and sport-specifi c physical fi tness (outer
circle). Health-related physical fi tness is composed of components representing cardiovascular-respiratory endur-
ance, metabolism, and muscular fi tness (strength, muscular endurance, and fl exibility). Sport-specifi c physical fi t-
ness builds on health-related physical fi tness and adds motor attributes (such as agility, balance, and power) and
anaerobic power and capacity, as needed.
well-being that provides the foundation for the tasks of
daily living, a degree of protection against hypokinetic
disease, and a basis for participation in sport (American
Alliance for Health, 1988). It is a product, the result of
the process of doing physical activity/exercise.
Dose-Response Relationships

would also be optimal for all possible desirable health/
performance outcomes and all populations. This is highly
unlikely, but unknown at this point. As a result, a variety of
public health statements on the amount of exercise/physi-
cal activity/fi tness necessary for obtaining health-related
benefi ts are available. These will be discussed in this text,
as well as the considerations for sport performance in the
context of the application of the training principles.
Training Principles
Although there is much we do not know about training,
and new training techniques appear often, eight funda-
mental guidelines are well established and should form the
basis for the development of any training program. These
training principles are defi ned and briefl y discussed in
the following sections, but the specifi c details for applying
each principle, as well as the anticipated results or adapta-
tions, are discussed in appropriate later units.
1. Specifi city. This principle is sometimes called the SAID
principle, which stands for “specifi c adaptations to
imposed demands”; that is, what you do is what you get.
When you develop an exercise training program,
you fi rst determine the goal. Fitness programs for
children and adolescents, for example, differ from
those for older adults. Training programs for nonath-
letes differ from training programs for athletes. Ath-
letic training programs vary by sport, by event, or even
by position within the same sport.
Second, you analyze the physiological requirements
for meeting the goal. What physiological system is
being stressed: the cardiovascular-respiratory, the met-

4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Relative Risk of Death
Quintiles of Exercise Capacity
54 3 21
Normal group
Group with cardiovascular disease
FIGURE 1.5. Data Showing the Dose-Response Relation-
ship between Exercise Capacity (Quintiles of Physical
Fitness) and Relative Risks of Death from Any Cause in
Normal Individuals and Individuals with Cardiovascular
Disease.
In both populations, the risk increases in a positive exponential
pattern as the fi tness level decreases. Although the risk is similar
between the groups in those with high fi tness (quintile 5), the
risk is higher for those with cardiovascular disease in quintiles 4,
3, and 2, but lower in quintile 1—the lowest level of fi tness.
Source: Modifi ed from Myers, J., M. Prakash, V. Froelicher,
D. Do, S. Partington, & J. E. Atwood: Exercise capacity and
mortality among men referred for exercise testing. New England
Journal of Medicine. 346(11):793–801 (2002).
Dose-Response Relationship A description of

response to adaptation. The best progression occurs
T
he role of the Offi ce of the
Surgeon General is to focus
the country’s attention on important
public health issues. In 1996, the
U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services released Physical
Activity and Health: A Report of the
Surgeon General (SGR). This land-
mark report acknowledged the major
importance of physical activity in
health and called attention to the
growing epidemic of inactivity in
the United States. Much of the SGR
is based on the body of knowledge
of exercise physiology that you will
be studying in this text.
The overwhelming message of
this report is that Americans can
make meaningful improvements
in their health and quality of life
by including moderate but regular
physical activity into their normal
daily living routines. In 2003, the
Centers for Disease Control and Pre-
vention (CDC) published responses
(on data collected in 2001) to the
question “During the past month,
did you participate in any physi-

Percentage of Adults Who Reported No Leisure-Time Physical Activity.
Despite the proven benefi ts of being physically active, over half of American
adults do not engage in levels of physical activity necessary to acquire health ben-
efi ts (2005). More than one fourth are not active at all in their leisure time. Activ-
ity decreases with age and is less common among women than men and among
those with lower income and less education.
Insuffi cient physical activity is not limited to adults. Information gathered
through the CDC’s Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System indicates that more
than a third of young people aged 12–21 years do not regularly engage in vigor-
ous physical activity. Daily participation in high school physical education classes
dropped from 42% in 1991 to 25% in 1995 and did not change signifi cantly from
1995 to 2003 (28%).
Source: CDC (2003, 2004, 2005).
FOCUS ON
APPLICATION
The Surgeon General’s Report on
Physical Activity and Health
Plowman_Chap01.indd 14Plowman_Chap01.indd 14 11/6/2009 6:58:15 PM11/6/2009 6:58:15 PM
CHAPTER 1 • The Warm-Up
15
5. Retrogression/Plateau/Reversibility. Progress is rarely
linear, predictable, or consistent. When an individ-
ual’s adaptation or performance levels off, a plateau
has been reached. If it decreases, retrogression has
occurred. A plateau should be interpreted relative to
the training regimen. Too much time spent doing the
same type of workout using the same equipment in
the same environment can lead to a plateau. Either
too little or too much competition can lead to a pla-
teau. Plateaus are a normal consequence of a main-

adaptation and performance decreases in the third.
Such differences often result from lifestyle factors,
particularly nutritional and sleep habits, stress lev-
els, and substance use (such as tobacco or alcohol).
Age, sex, genetics, disease, and the training modality
also all affect individual exercise prescriptions and
adaptations.
8. Warm-Up/Cool-Down. A warm-up prepares the body
for activity by elevating the body temperature. Con-
versely, a cool-down allows for a gradual return to
normal body temperature. The best type of warm-up
is specifi c to the activity that will follow and is indi-
vidualized to avoid fatigue.
Another important element beyond the physiological
training principles is motivation. Except at a military
boot camp, it is very diffi cult to force anyone to train.
in a series of incremental steps (called steploading), in
which every third or fourth change is actually a slight
decrease in training load (Bompa, 1999; Freeman,
1996). This step-down allows for recovery, which leads
to adaptation. Each step should be small, controlled,
and fl exible. A continuous unbroken increase in train-
ing load should be avoided. Complete the Check Your
Comprehension 2 box below.
CHECK YOUR COMPREHENSION 2
Below are three patterns of overload progression in the
general conditioning phase of an athlete’s training.
Select the one that is best, and justify your answer.
Training load
123456789

weeks
Overload
10
0
MTWTFSS
Overload
10
0
MTWTFSS
Overload
Rest
10
0
47 48 49 50 51 52
weeks
Overload
10
0
FSSMTWT
Overload
10
0
MTWT F SS
Overload
Key:
Outer circle = weeks
Inner circle = overload
U = unloading
T = tournaments
Day of week

i
t
i
o
n

p
h
a
s
e

T
r
a
n
s
i
t
i
o
n

p
h
a
s
e

G

Aerobic base
Heavy resistance
Flexibility
Attain % body fat
High-intensity
Sport-specific
S
p
e
c
i
f
i
c

p
r
e
p
a
r
a
t
i
o
n

p
h
a

25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
2
2
3
2
2

7
6
4
8
7
6
8
7
6
5
7
6
5
4
5
4
3
FIGURE 1.6. Periodization Phases and Overload.
The annual training plan consists of four phases: the general preparatory phase (which concentrates on developing
the health-related physical fi tness components), the specifi c preparatory phase (which emphasizes development of the
sport-specifi c physical fi tness components), the competitive phase (which emphasizes maintenance of all the physical
fi tness components), and the transition phase (which allows rest and recovery from the season but emphasizes cross-
training to avoid complete detraining). Overload is rated on a scale of 0 (complete rest) to 10 (maximal) and is shown in
the gold boxes on the inner circle. Three of the fi ve types of macrocycles are illustrated (A [developmental], B [shock],
and E [transition]) in the phases where they typically are used. Four of the fi ve types of microcycles are also shown
(A [developmental], B [shock], C [competitive], B and D [regeneration/tapering]) where they are typically used.
Plowman_Chap01.indd 16Plowman_Chap01.indd 16 11/6/2009 6:58:16 PM11/6/2009 6:58:16 PM
CHAPTER 1 • The Warm-Up
17
necessary adjustments. All evaluation testing should be

the specifi c preparatory phase, intensity may surpass
volume in importance. This varies according to the
physiological demands of particular sports (Kibler and
Chandler, 1994).
Competitive Phase
Once the athlete begins the competition phase, the early
emphasis shifts to maintaining the sport-specifi c fi tness
developed during the preseason. Although both volume
and intensity may be maintained, heavy work should
immediately follow a competition instead of directly
preceding one. During the late season, when the most
important competitions are usually held (such as confer-
ence championships or bowl games), the athlete should do
only a minimum of training or taper gradually by decreas-
ing training volume but maintaining intensity so that he
or she is rested without being detrained. For particularly
important contests, both training volume and intensity
might be decreased to allow suffi cient rest and recovery
to obtain supercompensation adaptation and peak for a
maximal effort (Kibler and Chandler, 1994).
Therefore, any training program should also be fun.
Intersperse games, variations, and special events with the
training, and strive to make normal training sessions as
enjoyable as possible.
Periodization
A training program should be implemented in a pattern
that is most benefi cial for adaptations. This pattern is
called the training cycle or periodization. Periodization
is a plan for training based on a manipulation of the
fi tness components and the training principles. The

systematically throughout the year to determine how
the individual is responding to training and to make any
Periodization Plan for training based on a manip-
ulation of the fi tness components with the intent
of peaking the athlete for the competitive season
or varying health-related fi tness training in cycles of
harder or easier training.
Plowman_Chap01.indd 17Plowman_Chap01.indd 17 11/6/2009 6:58:17 PM11/6/2009 6:58:17 PM
18
overreaching/ overtraining. Some reversal (regression)
of conditioning is expected. These phases are just as
valuable for the fi tness participant as for the athlete.
Microcycles
Macrocycles are further divided into microcycles, each
lasting 1 week (Fry et al., 1992; Kibler and Chandler,
1994) (Figures 1.6A–1.6D). Similar to macrocycles,
microcycles can be developmental, shock, competitive
or maintenance, tapering or unloading regeneration, or
transition or regression. Different types of microcycles
may also be used in a single phase or macrocycle. For
example, Figure 1.6B illustrates a shock macrocycle
that contains both shock microcycles and a regenera-
tion (unloading) microcycle. Likewise, Figures 1.6C and
1.6D depict a tapering microcycle and a competitive
microcycle in the competition phase. Microcycles are
further subdivided into specifi c daily workouts or lesson
plans designed by the coach for the athlete. Depending
on the athlete’s maturity and experience and the level of
competition, a training day may entail one, two, or three
workouts (Bompa, 1999).

ple days of complete rest and then participate in active
rest using noncompetitive physical activities outside the
primary sport. This type of activity is often called cross-
training. In this transition phase, neither training vol-
ume nor intensity should exceed low levels (Kibler and
Chandler, 1994).
Macrocycles
Each periodization phase is typically divided into several
types of macrocycles that may each vary in length from
2 to 6 weeks (Fry et al., 1992; Kibler and Chandler, 1994).
Each type of cycle aims for an optimal mixture of work
and rest. Macrocycles have fi ve basic goals or patterns,
described in the following sections. Different types of
macrocycles may be used in a single phase of training.
1. Developmental macrocycle. Figure 1.6A illustrates a
developmental macrocycle typically used in the pre-
paratory stages. It is designed to improve either gen-
eral or specifi c fi tness attributes, such as strength,
progressively. Overloading is achieved by a stepwise
progression from low to medium to high by gradually
increasing the load for three cycles (e.g., weeks 9, 10,
and 11), followed in week 12 by a regeneration cycle
back to the level of the second load or fi rst increase,
week 9). This level then becomes the base for the next
loading cycle. This is what is meant by steploading.
2. Shock macrocycle. Shock macrocycles, such as the one
illustrated in Figure 1.6B, are used primarily dur-
ing the two preparatory phases and are designed to
increase training demands suddenly. They should
always be followed by an unloading regeneration cycle

ing submaximal exercise are compared to pretraining
values under the same submaximal exercise conditions.
Similarly, posttraining maximal values of the variable of
interest can be compared to pretraining maximal values.
Time or exercise intensity, as always, is on the x-axis for
the line graphs. Training adaptations may be presented
as exercise response patterns using a line graph where
T = trained state and UT = untrained state (Figures 1.8A–
1.8C) or simply as specifi c values using a bar graph where
T1 indicates the pretraining value and T2 indicates the
posttraining value (Figure 1.8D).
Training results in adaptations that are either an
increase, a decrease, or unchanged in relation to the
untrained state. For example, in Figure 1.8A, there is
no difference in the values of this variable between the
trained and the untrained individuals either at rest or
during submaximal exercise. However, the trained group
increased at maximum over the untrained. In Figure 1.8B,
training resulted in an increase at rest, during submaximal
exercise, and at maximum. Figures 1.8C and 1.8D pres-
ent the same adaptations in both a line graph and a bar
graph to show how each might look. Both graphs indicate
that training resulted in a decrease at rest and submaximal
work, but no change at maximum.
Training adaptations at rest show more variation
than either submaximal or maximal changes. In gen-
FIGURE 1.7. Training to Improve Physiological Function
and Skill for Improved Performance.
Rest Max
Rest Max

Rest
Submax
Max
Submax
Submax
Submax
A
B
C
D
FIGURE 1.8. Graphic Patterns Depicting Training
Adaptations.
Training adaptations are evaluated by comparing variables of
interest before and after the training program during the same
condition; that is, at rest, during submaximal exercise, or at
maximal exercise. Before and after are depicted either by sepa-
rate lines for untrained (UT) and trained (T) individuals or by
the designations, T1 and T2, indicating the fi rst test and sec-
ond test separated by the training program. Compared with the
untrained state, training may cause no change, an increase, or a
decrease in the measured variable.
Training Adaptations Physiological changes or
adjustments resulting from an exercise training pro-
gram that promote optimal functioning.
Plowman_Chap01.indd 19Plowman_Chap01.indd 19 11/6/2009 6:58:17 PM11/6/2009 6:58:17 PM
20
DETRAINING
As noted in the retrogression/plateau/reversibility train-
ing principle, training adaptations are reversible. This is
called detraining. Detraining is the partial or complete

body homeostasis and all attempts by the body to regain
homeostasis. Selye defi nes stress more precisely as “the
state manifested by a specifi c syndrome that consists of all
the nonspecifi cally induced changes within a biological sys-
tem.” The biological system here is the human body. The
specifi c syndrome is the General Adaptation Syndrome
(GAS), a step-by-step description of the bodily reactions to
a stressor. It consists of three major stages (Selye, 1956):
1. the Alarm-Reaction: shock and countershock
2. the Stage of Resistance
3. the Stage of Exhaustion
In the Alarm-Reaction stage, the body responds to a stres-
sor with a disruption of homeostasis (shock). It imme-
diately attempts to regain homeostasis (countershock).
eral, if the exercise test is an absolute submaximal test,
the physiological responses will probably be decreased
after training. For example, heart rate at a work rate of
600 kgm
.
min
−1
might be 135 b
.
min
−1
for an individual
before training, but 128 b
.
min
−1

tion of exercise but also that they themselves represent
chronic changes. Such adaptations become greater with
harder training, are thought to exist as long as the train-
ing continues, and gradually return to baseline values
when training stops (detraining). In reality, however, not
all training adaptations follow this standard pattern. Some
benefi ts occur only immediately after the exercise session.
These effects are called last-bout effects and should not
be confused with the exercise response. For example, a
last-bout effect can occur with blood pressure levels. The
acute response of blood pressure to continuous aerobic
endurance exercise is an increase in systolic blood pres-
sure but little or no change in diastolic blood pressure. In
the recovery period after exercise, systolic blood pressure
decreases. In normal individuals, the decrease is back to
the exerciser’s normal resting value. In individuals with
high blood pressure, this postexercise decrease can result
in values below their abnormally high resting level for up
to 3 hours after exercise. After 3 hours, the high resting
values return. In some cases, the last-bout effect can be
augmented. That is, assuming that the individual partici-
pates in a training program of suffi cient frequency, inten-
sity, and duration for a period of one to several weeks, the
positive change occurring after each exercise bout may be
increased. In the example just referred to, the decrease
in systolic blood pressure might be 2 mmHg initially,
but after several weeks, the postexercise blood pressure
decrease might be 6 mmHg for several hours. However,
the adjustments that can occur are fi nite. Once the level of
the augmented last-bout effect is reached, no further increase

single bout of exercise results directly from the disruption
of homeostasis. This is the shock phase of the Alarm-
Reaction stage. For many physiological processes (respi-
ration, circulation, energy production, and so forth), the
initial response is an elevation in function. The degree of
elevation and constancy of this elevation depends on the
intensity and duration of the exercise. Appropriate changes
in physiological function begin in the countershock phase
of the Alarm-Reaction and stabilize in the Stage of Resis-
tance if the same exercise intensity is maintained for at
least 1–3 minutes. This is termed a physiological steady
state or steady rate. The Stage of Exhaustion that results
from a single bout of exercise, even incremental exer-
cise to maximum, is typically some degree of fatigue or
reduced capacity to respond to stimulation, accompanied
by a feeling of tiredness. This fatigue is temporary and
readily reversed with proper rest and nutrition.
Training programs are made up of a series of acute
bouts of exercise organized in such a way as to provide
an overload that puts the body into the Alarm-Reaction
stage followed by recovery processes that not only restore
homeostasis but also encourage supercompensation or
adaptation (Kenttä and Hassmén, 1998; Kuipers, 1998;
O’Toole, 1998). This can be manifested by altered homeo-
static levels at rest, dampened homeostatic disruptions
to absolute submaximal exercise loads, and/or enhanced
maximal performances or physiological responses. When
these adaptations occur, the body has achieved a Stage of
Resistance. Table 1.3 shows how the training principles
previously introduced operate in the three stages of gen-

that is easily recovered from and generally lasts only a few
days to 2 weeks. Overreaching may result from planned
shock microcycles, as described in the periodization sec-
tion, or result inadvertently from too much stress and
too little planned recovery (Fry and Kraemer, 1997; Fry
et al., 1991; Kuipers, 1998). If overreaching is planned
and recovery is suffi cient, positive adaptation and
improved performance, sometimes called supercompen-
sation, result. If, however, overreaching is left unchecked
or the individual or coach interprets the decrement
in performance as an indication that more work must
be done, overreaching may develop into overtraining.
Overtraining, more properly called the overtraining
syndrome (OTS) (or staleness), is a state of chronic
Detraining The partial or complete loss of training-
induced adaptations as a result of a training reduc-
tion or cessation.
Stress The state manifested by the specifi c syn-
drome that consists of all the nonspecifi cally induced
changes within a biological system; a disruption in
body homeostasis and all attempts by the body to
regain homeostasis.
Overtraining Syndrome (OTS) A state of chronic
decrement in performance and ability to train, in
which restoration may take several weeks, months,
or even years.
Plowman_Chap01.indd 21Plowman_Chap01.indd 21 11/6/2009 6:58:18 PM11/6/2009 6:58:18 PM
22
decrement in performance and ability to train, in which
restoration may take several weeks, months, or even years

Optimally
trained
Over-
reached
Over-
trained
FIGURE 1.9. Training Status and Performance.
TABLE 1.3 Selye’s Theory of Stress Applied to Exercise Physiology
Stage Exercise Response Training Principle
Training Adaptation/
Maladaptation
I. Alarm-reaction
a. Shock
b. Countershock
Neuroendocrine system
stimulated
a. Homeostasis disrupted
b. Begin to attain elevated
steady state
Warm-up/cool-down
Overload
Progression*
Dampened response to equal
acute exercise stimulus
II. State of Resistance Elevated homeostatic steady
state maintained if exercise
intensity is unchanged
Adaptation
Maintenance
Specifi city (SAID)

physiological system and outcome), accuracy of the
selected exercise (criterion or fi eld test), and environ-
mental and experimental conditions (temperature,
relative humidity, barometric pressure, and subject
preparation).
3. The baselines against which the exercise-caused dis-
ruptions of homeostasis are compared are normal
resting values of the measured variables.
a. Constant workloads/work rates that are aerobic
most frequently result in a small initial increase
in the measured variable with a plateau at steady
state if intensity is light to moderate and dura-
tion is short; if the intensity is moderate to heavy
and the duration is long, aerobic workloads/work
rates result in a large increase with a plateau at
steady state that evolves into a positive or negative
drift. Constant dynamic resistance exercise exhib-
its a seesaw pattern of gradual increase. Sustained
static contraction often results in no change or a
change so small that it has no physiological sig-
nifi cance during the exercise but a rebound rise in
recovery.
b. Incremental exercise to maximum most frequently
results in either a rectilinear rise (with or without
breakpoints) or a curvilinear rise (positive, nega-
tive, or U-shaped).
4. Health-related physical fi tness is composed of compo-
nents representing cardiovascular-respiratory endur-
ance, metabolism, and muscular fi tness (strength,
muscular endurance, and fl exibility).

ological function. Training adaptations are com-
pared to corresponding pretraining conditions (the
baseline).
11. Training adaptations may occur on at least three lev-
els: a last-bout effect, an augmented last-bout effect,
or a chronic change.
12. Detraining is the reversal of training adaptations
caused by a decrease or cessation of exercise training.
It depends upon the training status of the individ-
ual, the degree of reduction in the exercise training,
which overload component is impacted most, and the
length of time training is interrupted. The timeline
for detraining is different for different physiological
variables.
13. In the context of Selye’s theory of stress, exercise is a
stressor that causes a disruption of the body’s homeo-
stasis. During an acute bout of exercise, the body
may progress from the Alarm-Reaction stage to the
Stages of Resistance and (occasionally) Exhaustion.
Training programs should be designed to provide an
overload that allows adaptation and gradual progres-
sion but avoids nonrecoverable time in the Stage of
Exhaustion and the overtraining syndrome.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Defi ne exercise physiology, exercise, and exercise
training.
2. Graph the most frequent responses physiological vari-
ables might exhibit in response to a constant work-
load/work rate. Verbally describe these responses.
3. Graph the most frequent responses physiological vari-

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• Balance of energy intake and
output for body composition
and weight control
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