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Technology of Cheesemaking
Second Edition
Edited by
Barry A. Law
R&D Consultant to the Dairy Industry
Victoria, Australia
and
A.Y. Tamime
Consultant in Dairy Science and Technology
Ayr, UK
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
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Technology of Cheesemaking
Second Edition
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The Society of Dairy Technology (SDT) has joined with Wiley-Blackwell to produce a series
of technical dairy-related handbooks providing an invaluable resource for all those involved
in the dairy industry, from practitioners to technologists, working in both traditional and
modern large-scale dairy operations. For information regarding the SDT, please contact
Maurice Walton, Executive Director, Society of Dairy Technology, P. O. Box 12, Appleby in
Westmorland, CA16 6YJ, UK. email:
Other volumes in the Society of Dairy Technology book series:

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Technology of cheesemaking / edited by Barry A. Law, A.Y. Tamime. – 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4051-8298-0 (hardback : alk. paper)
1. Cheesemaking. I. Law, Barry A. II. Tamime, A. Y.
SF271.T36 2010

1.4 Quality definition of milk 15
1.4.1 Safety/public health (pathogens including Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, Brucella spp., toxic residues, and contaminants) 16
1.4.2 Composition (protein, casein, fat, total solids, lactose, and
mineral) 18
1.4.3 Microbiology (total bacterial count) 22
1.4.4 Sensory (appearance, colour, smell, and taste) 23
1.4.5 Authenticity (non-adulteration with residues or other milks/milk
fractions) 23
1.5 Factors affecting the quality of milk for cheese manufacture 24
1.5.1 Milk composition 24
1.5.2 Microbial activity of milk 31
1.5.3 Somatic cell count 34
1.5.4 Enzymatic activity of milk 36
1.5.5 Chemical residues 43
1.6 Strategy for quality milk production 45
1.7 Conclusions 47
References 50
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vi Contents
2 The Origins, Development and Basic Operations of Cheesemaking
Technology 68
M. Johnson and B.A. Law
2.1 Introduction 68
2.2 The world market for cheese 68
2.3 The fundamentals of cheese technology 69
2.4 Basic cheese manufacture 70
2.5 The stages of cheesemaking 77

3.2.3 Fermentation-produced chymosin 100
3.2.4 Vegetable coagulants 101
3.3 Molecular aspects of the enzymes in rennet and coagulants 101
3.3.1 Introduction 101
3.3.2 Specific molecular aspects 102
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3.4 Technology of enzymes production 103
3.4.1 General background 103
3.4.2 Production of enzymes 103
3.4.3 Formulation, standardisation and quality control 106
3.5 Analysis of coagulants 107
3.6 Legislation and approvals 110
3.7 Physical chemistry and kinetics of enzymatic coagulation
of milk 111
3.7.1 Stability and destabilisation of the casein micelles 111
3.7.2 Kinetics of enzymatic coagulation of milk 112
3.8 Application of rennet and coagulants 115
3.8.1 Trends in use 115
3.8.2 Handling and use of rennet and coagulants 116
3.8.3 Milk quality, treatment and additives 116
3.8.4 Controlling the curd firmness at cutting 119
3.8.5 Performance of different rennet and coagulants available
in the market 119
3.8.6 Coagulants and cheese ripening 123
3.8.7 Choice of coagulant 124
3.9 Conclusions 125
References 125
4 The Formation of Cheese Curd 130

4.6 On-line measurement of curd firmness and syneresis 152
4.6.1 On-line measurement of curd setting 152
4.6.2 Modelling and controlling gelation and cutting time 152
4.6.3 On-line measurement of syneresis 153
4.7 Cheese with reduced-fat content 154
References 156
5 The Production, Application and Action of Lactic Cheese Starter Cultures 166
E. Høier, T. Janzen, F. Rattray, K. Sørensen, M.W. Børsting, E. Brockmann
and E. Johansen
5.1 Introduction 166
5.2 Historical background 166
5.3 Production of starter cultures 167
5.4 Range of LAB used as starter cultures 169
5.4.1 Traditional starter cultures 169
5.4.2 Probiotic starter cultures 170
5.5 Taxonomy of LAB 172
5.5.1 Identification 172
5.5.2 Species important in cheese making 173
5.6 The types of lactic cultures 174
5.6.1 Development of mesophilic cultures 174
5.6.2 Use of DVS cultures 175
5.6.3 Selection of culture strains 177
5.7 Modern approaches to the development of new starter cultures 177
5.7.1 Genomics and traditional bacterial genetics 177
5.7.2 Food-grade GMOs for the dairy industry 178
5.7.3 Use of automated laboratory methods to develop new
starter cultures 179
5.8 Biochemistry of acidification by LAB 180
5.8.1 Introduction 180
5.8.2 Sugar metabolism 180

6.3.3 Coryneforms 202
6.4 Commercially available secondary cheese starter cultures 203
6.4.1 Moulds 203
6.4.2 Yeasts 204
6.4.3 Brevibacteria 205
6.4.4 Staphylococci 205
6.4.5 Coryneforms 205
6.4.6 Mixed starter cultures 206
6.5 Surface ripening 206
6.5.1 Ripening strategies 206
6.5.2 Yeasts and moulds 207
6.5.3 Staphylococci 209
6.5.4 Smear bacteria (coryneforms) 209
6.5.5 Food safety 211
6.5.6 Old–young smearing 211
6.5.7 L. monocytogenes 213
6.5.8 Mould spoilage 213
6.5.9 Anti-listeria starter cultures 214
6.6 Development of defined surface starter cultures 215
6.6.1 Surface starter cultures for semi-soft cheeses 216
6.6.2 Surface starter cultures for smeared soft cheeses 217
6.6.3 Starter cultures for acid curd cheeses (yellow type) 218
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6.6.4 Colour development 220
6.6.5 Application of defined starter cultures 220
6.7 Proteolysis and lipolysis 221
6.8 Aroma 222
6.9 Conclusions 224

8.3.2 Assessment of cheese quality 264
8.3.3 Sensory tests 266
8.3.4 Rheology and texture of cheese 267
8.3.5 Colorimetry 268
8.3.6 Image analysis 268
8.4 Cheese quality: influence of chemical composition of milk 269
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Contents xi
8.5 Cheese quality: effect of milk pre-treatments and manufacturing
operations 271
8.5.1 Cold storage of milk prior to pasteurisation at the cheese factory 271
8.5.2 Thermisation 273
8.5.3 Milk pasteurisation and incorporation of in situ denatured whey
proteins 273
8.5.4 Bactofugation 279
8.5.5 Clarification 280
8.5.6 Standardisation of protein-to-fat ratio 280
8.5.7 Homogenisation 286
8.5.8 Addition of calcium chloride 289
8.5.9 Milk gelation 290
8.5.10 Curd-cutting programmes 291
8.5.11 Stirring and cooking 294
8.5.12 Curd washing: standardisation of lactose level in the moisture
phase of the curd 295
8.5.13 Whey drainage and remaining operations 298
8.6 Cheese quality: effect of cheese composition 299
8.7 Cheese quality: effect of ripening 301
8.7.1 Overview of the ripening process 301
8.7.2 Factors affecting ripening 303

9.4.4 Functionality changes during storage 349
9.5 Non-traditional methods of manufacture 349
9.5.1 Direct acidification 349
9.5.2 Cheese blends 350
9.5.3 Low-fat pizza cheese 350
9.5.4 Imitation (analogue) pizza cheese 351
9.5.5 Processed pizza cheese 352
References 352
10 Eye Formation and Swiss-Type Cheeses 360
A. Thierry, F. Berthier, V. Gagnaire, J.R. Kerjean, C. Lopez and Y. No
¨
el
10.1 Introduction 360
10.1.1 Which kinds of cheese? 360
10.1.2 Manufacture and chemical composition 361
10.1.3 Scope of the present chapter 361
10.2 Open texture and eye formation 363
10.2.1 Gas production – a sign of quality 363
10.2.2 Eye formation 365
10.2.3 Cheese cohesion 366
10.3 Gas formation through propionic fermentation 366
10.3.1 Main sources of gas in Swiss-type cheeses 366
10.3.2 Taxonomy, ecology and presence of PAB in cheese 367
10.3.3 Metabolism of PAB 368
10.3.4 Influence of LAB on propionibacteria 370
10.3.5 Relationship between eye formation and flavour development 371
10.4 Cheese structure and eye formation 372
10.4.1 Mechanical properties and eye formation of cheese 372
10.4.2 Changes during ripening and eye formation 374
10.4.3 Eye formation and slit development 376

12.2.2 Parameters affecting cutting performance 416
12.2.3 Cutting velocity 417
12.3 Applications of cutting 419
12.3.1 Partitioning and segmentation 419
12.3.2 Slicing 420
12.3.3 Dicing 420
12.3.4 Shredding 421
12.4 Packaging of cheeses 421
12.4.1 Specific requirements 421
12.4.2 Packaging materials 422
12.4.3 Packaging of hard and semi-hard cheeses 425
12.4.4 Packaging of soft cheeses 428
12.5 Packaging machines 428
12.5.1 Control of the packaging process 428
12.5.2 Machinery for cheese packaging 430
12.5.3 Miscellaneous methods of cheese packaging 436
12.6 Conclusion 437
References 438
13 The Grading and Sensory Profiling of Cheese 440
D.D. Muir
13.1 Introduction to cheese-grading systems 440
13.2 Fundamentals of sensory processing 440
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xiv Contents
13.2.1 The three dimensions of sensory experience 440
13.2.2 Integration versus selection of sensory information 441
13.3 Grading systems: defect versus attribute grading 442
13.3.1 The Australian grading system 442
13.3.2 The UK grading system 443

13.9.6 Generalised Procrustes Analysis (GPA) 458
13.9.7 Interpretation of sensory space maps 459
13.9.8 Multivariate prediction 459
13.9.9 Measurement of assessors’ performance 461
13.10 Sensory character of commercial cheese 467
13.10.1 Comparison of maturity declaration on cheese packaging
with sensory panel ratings 467
13.10.2 Discrimination amongst cheese types 468
13.11 Development of flavour lexicons 469
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Contents xv
13.12 Overview 471
13.13 Acknowledgements 472
References 472
Index 475
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Preface to the Technical Series
For more than 60 years, the Society of Dairy Technology (SDT) has sought to provide
education and training in the dairy field, disseminating knowledge and fostering personal de-
velopment through symposia, conferences, residential courses, publications, and its journal,
the International Journal of Dairy Technology (previously published as the Journal of the
Society of Dairy Technology).
In recent years, there have been significant advances in our understanding of milk systems,
probably the most complex natural food available to man. At the same time, improvements
in process technology have been accompanied by massive changes in the scale of many milk
processing operations, and the manufacture a wide range of dairy and other related products.
The Society has embarked on a project with Wiley-Blackwell to produce a technical
series of dairy-related books to provide an invaluable source of information for practicing

applied to improve the manufacturing properties of milk for cheesemaking.
We have also introduced an appraisal of the key stages of cheese manufacture which
can be manipulated to control and maintain the consistency quality of cheese. Although
this has produced some overlap with our coverage of milk quality for cheesemaking, we
have felt justified in allowing this overlap because it emphasises the prime importance of
milk preparation practice for the quality and consistency of cheese for the end user. We
also acknowledge that many of these control techniques have been known and used by
cheesemakers for many years, but it is only more recently that the science base has delivered
a level of basic understanding of their underlying workings. This has led to refinements
and new opportunities in cheese production recipes and line technologies, which we have
included in this volume.
The first edition did not include packaging as a separate field for scientific and techno-
logical input into cheese manufacture. In recognition of the vital role of this area within the
industry, and the knowledge-based advances in packaging methods specifically applicable to
such a ‘live’ and varied product as cheese, the second edition includes a chapter dedicated to
the knowledge and application of packaging materials and equipment. This includes general
principles, through to specific challenges from cheese technology.
We would like to acknowledge the time and effort that the expert contributors have given
to make this second edition possible. Many are the original authors who helped create the
first edition, and our thanks go to them for adding to their already excellent work. We were
xvii
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xviii Preface to the Second Edition
also fortunate to have a number of new contributors, and we hope they will be as exciting by
the results of their efforts as we are, in that this updated volume reflects another decade of
progress in the industry and its base of science and technology.
Whilst reflecting on the satisfaction of delivering this volume, we must also pay special
tribute to our colleague, Tony Williams, who passed away while the book was in final
preparation. Tony, with his partner Paul Neaves, was an outstanding food microbiologist

Having established a detailed knowledge of cheesemaking per se, authors take the reader
on to learn about rennets and coagulants – how they are made, standardised and used,
and their concerted action (with lactic starter cultures) in forming the basis of all cheese,
the curd. Following a logical progression, the book proceeds to consider how the lactic
culture, the added moulds and non-lactics, and the eye-forming bacteria work in and on the
ripening cheese in their different ways to convert the bland curd into the familiar cheddars,
pizza cheeses, blue cheeses, camembert, Swiss-type cheeses and the aromatic smear-ripened
varieties. Pressure on cheesemakers to produce both traditional and new varieties from
increasingly uniform and controlled plant has pushed cheese technology to find new ways
of accelerating and controlling the balance of cheese ripening – topics which this volume
covers in depth.
Cheesemakers are ultimately answerable to, and dependent on, consumers for their liveli-
hoods. This book includes chapters on food safety assurance as well on cheese grading and
sensory assessment, showing how to ensure that the technology not only produces what the
cheesemaker intends to do, but what the consumer expects and wants.
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xx Preface to the First Edition
The book is for the enlightenment and support of a wide range of potential readers, ranging
from the forever curious to cheesemakers who want to understand more clearly what they
are making every day. It will be equally valuable to product development specialists seeking
insights into the scope for innovation from the basic cheese technology, and to advanced
students of food science and technology wishing to go beyond the standard cheese textbook.
The experienced research scientist will find in these pages many examples of the working
interface between research and applications,through which to establish communications with
product development technologists. By including chapters by specialists in the technology of
coagulants, cultures and ripening systems, we have widened the value of the book to include
the interests of the dairy ingredients business.
I should like to acknowledge the contributors to this book. It is all very well to have

Federal Research Centre for Nutrition and
Food (BFEL)
Location Kiel
Hermann Weigmann Straße 1
P.O. Box 6069
24121 Kiel
Germany
Tel. +49 (0)431 609 2438
Fax +49 (0)431 609 2306
E-mail:
Ms M.W. Børsting
Chr. Hansen A/S
10-12 Bøge All
´
e
DK-2970 Hørsholm
Denmark
Tel. +45 (0)45 74 85 38 (direct)
Fax +45 (0)45 74 88 16
E-mail:
Dr. E. Brockmann
Chr. Hansen A/S
10-12 Bøge All
´
e
DK-2970 Hørsholm
Denmark
Tel. +45 (0)45 74 85 16 (direct)
Fax +45 (0)45 74 89 94
E-mail:

Ireland
Tel. +353 (0)25 42204
Fax: +353 (0)25 42340
E-mail:
Dr. M. Harboe
Chr. Hansen A/S
10-12 Bøge All
´
e
DK-2970 Hørsholm
Denmark
Tel. +45 (0)45 74 85 25 (direct)
Fax +45(0)45748816
E-mail:
Dr. A.J. Hillier
CSIRO Food and Nutritional Sciences
Private Bag 16
Werribee
Victoria 3030
Australia
Tel. +61 (0)3 9731 3268
Fax +61 (0)3 9731 3322
E-mail:
Mr.E.Høier
Chr. Hansen A/S
10-12 Bøge All
´
e
DK-2970 Hørsholm,
Denmark

Tel. +45 (0)45 74 84 64 (direct)
Fax +45 (0)45 74 89 94
E-mail:
Dr. M. Johnson
Wisconsin Centre for Dairy Research
Wisconsin University
1605 Linden Drive
Madison, WI 53562
USA
Tel. +1 (0)608 262 0275
Fax
+1 (0)608 262 1578
E-mail:
Dr. J.R. Kerjean
Actilait – P
ˆ
ole Ouest
P.O. Box 50915
35009 Rennes Cedex
France
Tel. +33 (0)2 23 48 55 88
Fax +33 (0)2 23 48 55 89
E-mail:
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Contributors xxiii
Dr. P.S. Kindstedt
Department of Nutrition and Food
Science
University of Vermont

UMR 1253 Science et Technologie du Lait
et de l’Oeuf
65 Rue de Saint Brieuc
35042 Rennes Cedex
France
Tel. +33 (0)2 23 48 56 17
Fax +33 (0)2 23 48 53 50
E-mail:
Dr.J.J.Mayes
CSIRO Food and Nutritional Science
Private Bag 16
Werribee
Victoria 3030
Australia
Tel. +61 (0)3 9731 3456
Fax +61 (0)3 9731 3322
E-mail:
Professor D.D. Muir
DD Muir Consultants
26 Pennyvenie Way
Girdle Toll
Irvine KA11 1QQ
UK
Tel. +44 (0)1294 213137
Fax (not available)
E-mail:
Dr. P. Neaves
Williams & Neaves
The Food Microbiologists
28 Randalls Road