ONLINE CONSUMER
PSYCHOLOGY
Understanding
and
Influencing
Consumer
Behavior
in the
Virtual World
Advertising
and
Consumer Psychology
A
Series
Sponsored
by the
Society
for
Consumer Psychology
Aaker/Biel: Brand Equity
&
Advertising: Advertising's Role
in
Building Strong
Brands
(1993)
Clark/Brock/Stewart: Attention, Attitude,
and
Affect
in

Psychology
of
Marketing
Communications
(2003)
Mitchell: Advertising Exposure,
Memory,
and
Choice (1993)
Schumann/Thorson:
Advertising
and the
World
Wide
Web
(1999)
Scott/Batra: Persuasive Imagery:
A
Consumer Response Perspective (2003)
Shrum:
The
Psychology
of
Entertainment Media: Blurring
the
Lines Between
Entertainment
and
Persuasion
(2004)

Influencing
Consumer
Behavior
in the
Virtual World
LEA
Edited
by
Curtis
P.
Haugtvedt
Ohio
State
University
Karen
A.
Machleit
University
of
Cincinnati
Richard
F.
Yalch
University
of
Washington
LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS
2005
Mahwah,
New

rights reserved.
No
part
of
this book
may be
reproduced
in
any
form,
by
photostat, microform, retrieval system,
or any
other means, without prior written permission
of the
publisher.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers
10
Industrial Avenue
Mahwah,
New
Jersey
07430
www.erlbaum.com
Library
of
Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Online consumer psychology
:
understanding

2.
Internet advertising.
3.
Electronic commerce.
I.
Haugtvedt, Curtis
P.,
1958-
II.
Machleit, Karen
A.
III. Yalch, Richard.
IV.
Series.
HF5415.32.O55
2005
659.14'4'019—dc22
2004027585
Books published
by
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
are
printed
on
acid-free
paper,
and
their bindings
are
chosen

Behavior
and
Community
Change:
Exploring
the
Social-Psychological
Roles
of Net
Rituals
in the
Developmental
Processes
of
Online Consumption Communities
7
Anat
Toder-Alon, Frederick
F.
Brunei,
and
Wendy
L.
Schneier
Siegal
2
Published Word
of
Mouth: Referable, Consumer-Generated
Information

David
M.
Boush
and
Lynn Kahle
PART
II:
ADVERTISING
5 How
Banner
Ads
Affect
Brand Choice Without Click-Through
125
Andrew
Mitchell
and Ana
Valenzuela
6
Factors
Affecting
Click-Through Rate
143
Jean-Louis Chandon
and
Mohamed Saber Chtourou
vi
CONTENTS
7
Exploring Consumer Response

Investigating
the
Product
and
Process
207
Janis
J.
Crow
and
James Shanteau
10
Marketing
to
Individual Consumers Online:
The
Influence
of
Perceived Control
225
John
Godek
and J.
Frank
Yates
11
Smoother
Surfing
Across Cultures: Bilinguals
on the Web 245

and
Product
Attitude
287
Richard
C.
Omanson, June
A.
Cline,
and
Christie
L.
Nordhielm
14
Gendered Information Processing: Implication
for
Web
Site Design
303
Elizabeth Purinton
and
Deborah
E.
Rosen
15 The
Effect
of
Site Design
and
Interattribute Correlations

The
Internet
and Its
Effect
on
Consumer Decision Making
361
Saurabh
Mishra
and
Richard
W.
Olshavsky
18
Consumer
Relationships
with
an
e-Brand:
Implications
for
e-Brand Extensions
379
JongWon
Park,
Hyan-Jung
Lee,
and
Hyung-Il
Lee

of
Internet
Use on
Health Cognitions
and
Health Behavior
433
Noel
T.
Brewer
PART
VI:
RESEARCH TOOLS
AND
APPROACHES
22
Experiential Ecommerce:
A
Summary
of
Research
Investigating
the
Impact
of
Virtual Experience
on
Consumer Learning
457
Terry

inter-
ested
in
context
effects
on
judgment
and
decision-making processes,
how
people
retrieve
and use
information about others
in
answering survey questions,
and
devel-
oping
methods
for
reducing measurement error
in
surveys
via
questionnaire
de-
sign.
She
serves

of the
Media Interface
and
Network Design (M.I.N.D.)
Lab at
Michigan State University.
The
M.I.N.D.
Lab is an
international, multi-university human-computer interac-
tion
and
communication research
lab
with
ten
facilities spanning
six
countries
(www.mindlab.org).
His
research interests
focus
on the
interaction
of
media
and
mind,
specifically

His
articles have appeared
in
such
outlets
as the
Journal
of
Consumer Research
and the
Journal
of
Marketing
Re-
search.
He is a
member
of the
American Marketing Association,
the
Association
for
Consumer Research,
the
Academy
of
Marketing
Science,
and the
Society

of the
Journal
of
the
Academy
of
Marketing
Sciences.
Noel
T.
Brewer (Ph.D., University
of
North
Carolina-Chapel
Hill)
conducts
re-
search
is the
areas
of
health psychology
and
public health.
His
work examines
how
health cognitions inform decision-making.
One
focus

is an
Assistant Professor
of
Marketing
at
Boston University
School
of
Management.
He
holds
an MBA
ix
ABOUT
THE
CONTRIBUTORS
from
Illinois State University,
and a BS
from
Ecole Supérieure
des
Sciences Com-
merciales d'Angers (ESSCA) Angers, France.
He has
lead professional education
programs
in the
USA, Europe, Latin America,
and

like:
Journal
of
Consumer Research, Journal
of
Adver-
tising,
Journal
of
Consumer Psychology, Journal
of the
Academy
of
Marketing
Science, Journal
of
Advertising Research,
Psychology
and
Marketing, Business
Strategy
Review, Advances
in
Consumer Research, Developments
in
Marketing
Science, Cross-Cultural Consumer
and
Business Studies,
Gender,

gram.
He
worked
as a
media consultant
for
Nielsen, Emap,
and
Mediametrie.
He
has
written several papers
in the
area
of
audience measurement, media planning,
and
service marketing.
Mohamed Saber Chtourou (Ph.D., University
of Aix
Marseille III)
is a
research
assistant
in
EDHEC Business School.
He is
also
an
associate researcher

potential complementarily between online
and
offline
media,
and
issues related
to
Internet media planning. This paper
is a
part
of a
larger project
he is
conducting
at
Wanadoo Regie,
a
leading French Internet
ad
agency. Other papers have been
presented
to the
French Marketing Association Congress, ESOMAR Conference,
IREP Conference.
June
A.
Cline works
as a
research consultant
and

is a
doctoral
student
completing
her
dissertation
in
consumer
psy-
chology
at
Kansas State University
and is an
instructor
in the
Marketing Depart-
ment.
Her
research interests
are in
unstructured decision making where
a
clear
alternative does
not
exist such
as in
customizing
a
product.

University
of
Memphis)
is
Assistant Professor
of
Man-
agement
in the
Campbell School
of
Business
at
Berry College.
Her
current research
interests
include
the
validity
of
Internet-based
approaches,
knowledge manage-
ment,
and
international entrepreneurship.
Her
work
has

University
of
Texas
at
Austin.
His
research
focuses
on
investigating consumer behavior
and
strategic media management, with
work
appearing
in the
Journal
of
Advertising, Journal
of
Consumer
Psychology,
Journal
of
Interactive
Advertising, Journal
of
Interactive
Marketing,
and in the im-
pending books Advances

is a
Business Administration Professor
at the
Universi-
dad
of
Alicante (Spain), where
she
lectures since 1991.
De
Juan
has
been
a
lecturer
at
the
University
of
Florida
(USA)
and at the
Southampton Institute (United King-
dom),
as
well
as at
several Spanish Business Schools, such
as
ESADE (Barcelona).

Academy
of
Marketing
Science
and the
Journal
of
Consumer Psychology.
Basil
G.
Englis (Ph.D., Dartmouth College)
is the
Richard Edgerton Professor
of
Business Administration
and
Chair
of the
Department
of
Marketing
in the
Camp-
bell School
of
Business
at
Berry College.
His
current research interests include

Experimental
Social Psychology. Profes-
sor
Englis
has
consulted with numerous organizations, including
E. I.
DuPont
de
Nemours, eBay,
and the
Vanity
Fair
Corporation.
Barbara Fasolo (Ph.D., University
of
Colorado
at
Boulder) studies multi-attribute
choice
processes
across
different
domains, ranging
from
consumer
and
medical
decision making
to

the
choice attributes
xii
ABOUT
THE
CONTRIBUTORS
(positive
or
negative).
She
co-authored
an
Annual Review
of
Psychology
chapter
reviewing consumer web-based
decision
aids.
After
completing
a
post-doctoral
fellowship
at the Max
Planck
Institute
in
Berlin,
she is now an

of
firms'
individual level marketing
efforts
(customization
and
personal-
ization)
on
consumers' decision processes
and
choices.
His
research
has
appeared
in the
Journal
of
Consumer Research
and the
Journal
of
Consumer
Psychology.
Gerald Haubl (Ph.D., Wirtschaftsuniversitat Wien)
is
Canada Research Chair
in
Behavioral Science,

and
value, consumer information search, bidding behavior
in
auc-
tions,
and the
automated creation
of
personalized customer interfaces.
His
research
has
been published
in
Marketing Science, Journal
of
Consumer Psychology,
In-
ternational Journal
of
Research
in
Marketing, Communications
of
the
Association
for
Computing Machinery,
and
other journals.

Management,
MBA
courses
in
Consumer Behavior
and
Electronic Marketing,
and
Ph.D. seminars
in
Advanced Topics
in
Consumer Psychology.
His
research
has
appeared
in the
Journal
of
Personality
and
Social Psychology, Journal
of
Con-
sumer Research, Journal
of
Consumer Psychology, Communication Monographs,
and
numerous book chapters.

As-
sociate Editor
of the
Journal
of
Consumer Psychology
and was
President
of the
Society
for
Consumer Psychology
(1999-2000).
C.
Edward Heath
is
Assistant Professor
of
Marketing
at
Xavier University.
He is
currently
completing
his
Ph.D.
at the
University
of
Kentucky.

worked
on
numerous internet-related projects.
This included interactive strategy development within
a
broader communication
setting, evaluation
of
content
and
functionality needs,
and
site realization.
Melanie
Jones
(Ph.D., University
of
Cincinnati)
is a law
student
at
Loyola Uni-
versity,
New
Orleans.
Her
primary research interests include data protection issues
on
the
Internet

R.
Kahle (Ph.D., University
of
Nebraska-Lincoln)
is the
James Warsaw
Professor
of
Marketing
at the
University
of
Oregon. Topics
of his
research include
social adaptation, values,
and
sports marketing.
His
articles have appeared
in
such
outlets
as the
Journal
of
Consumer Research, Journal
of
Marketing,
Sport

and
Psychographics.
He has
served
as
President
of the
Society
for
Consumer Psychology, President
of the
City
of
Eugene Human Rights program,
and
Chair
of the
Department
of
Marketing
at
the
University
of
Oregon.
Robert
J.
Kent (Ph.D., University
of
Cincinnati)

of
Advertising Research,
and
other outlets.
Katharine
A.
Lange (BA, University
of
Colorado
at
Boulder) contributed
to
studies about everyday
decisions
made
on the
Web,
in
order
to
help users make
better choices online,
and to
further
understand decision processes
in
general.
She
is
currently working

major
telecommunication company
in
Korea
(SK
Telecom) where
he
developed
the
Ring Back Tone Service
and
Color-Ring.
His
work
has
appeared
in
journals such
as
Korean Journal
of
Consumer Studies.
Hyun-Jung
Lee is a
doctoral candidate
in
marketing, Korea University, Seoul,
Korea.
She is
currently working

M.
Levin
is
Assistant Professor
of
Marketing
at
Northern Kentucky Univer-
sity.
He
earned
his
Ph.D.
from
the
University
of
Kentucky.
His
research interests
are in
brand alliances
and the
impact
of
sport sponsorships
on
consumers.
His
work

Iowa.
His
research interests
are
consumer decision-making, information
framing
effects,
and
individual
differences
and
risky decision-making.
His
work
has ap-
peared
in the
Journal
of
Consumer Psychology, Journal
of
Consumer Research,
Organizational
Behavior
and
Human Decision Processes, Journal
of
Behavioral
Decision Making,
and

Associates,
her
internet-related communications research
has
spanned segmen-
tation,
usability,
and
brand health analyses.
She
also
has
successfully pioneered
sampling research
and
consumer-modeling work
to
help large Internet advertisers
make spending
and
targeting decisions.
Hairong
Li
(Ph.D., Michigan State University)
is an
Associate Professor
of Ad-
vertising
and
Research Fellow

of
language
on
consumer information processing
and
marketing communications.
His
work
has
appeared
in the
Journal
of
Consumer Research,
the
Journal
of
Con-
sumer Psychology,
the
Journal
of
the
Academy
of
Marketing
Science,
the
Journal
of

con-
sumer behavior.
His
work
on
customer relationships, leadership,
and
business
strategy issues
has
been featured
in the
books
The
Ultimate
CRM
Handbook;
ABOUT
THE
CONTRIBUTORS
xv
DoCoMo:
Japan's
Wireless
Tsunami;
and Got
Game:
How the
Gamer Generation
is

Machleit (Ph.D., Michigan State University)
is
Professor
of
Marketing,
University
of
Cincinnati.
Her
primary research interests
are in the
areas
of
affective
responses
in
consumption contexts
and
measurement
issues/scale
development.
Her
recent research examines
the
effect
of the
online store atmosphere
on
shopper
responses.

Psychology
as
Secretary/Treasurer during
1999-2001.
Gary
H.
McClelland (Ph.D., University
of
Michigan)
is
Professor
of
Psychology
and
Professor
of
Marketing
at the
University
of
Colorado
at
Boulder.
He has
pub-
lished
two
books
on
statistical methodology: Data Analysis,

of
Psychological Methods.
Raj
Mehta (Ph.D.
in
Marketing, University
of
Utah)
is
Professor
of
Marketing,
University
of
Cincinnati.
His
research interests include
the
influence
of
information
technology
on
marketing, international marketing,
new
product development,
and
marketing models.
He
also

India; Masters
in
Business, Indiana Univer-
sity)
is
currently
a
doctoral candidate
in the
Marketing Department
at the
Kelley
School
of
Business, Indiana University.
His
research interests
lie
broadly
in
inves-
tigating
consumer behavior
in
online
and
conventional store environments.
Andrew Mitchell
is the
Patricia Ellison Professor

Consumer Research, Journal
of
Marketing Research,
xvi
ABOUT
THE
CONTRIBUTORS
Management
Science,
and
Journal
of
Marketing.
His
current research interests
include
the
effects
of
memory
on
judgment
and
choice, brand evaluation processes,
and
the
organization
of
brand information
in

as
they approach
the
Internet,
she and her
partner, Regina Lewis, have helped
numerous clients develop
Web
site strategy.
Kyle
B.
Murray (Ph.D., University
of
Alberta)
is an
Assistant Professor
of
Mar-
keting
in the
Richard Ivey School
of
Business
at the
University
of
Western Ontario.
His
research focuses
on

of his
research have also been featured
in a
number
of
book chapters,
as
well
as the Na-
tional
Post's
Business Edge.
As an
educator,
Dr.
Murray
has
developed
and
taught
undergraduate, MBA,
and
executive level courses
in
marketing
and
e-commerce.
He has
also
been active

at the
University
of
Wisconsin-Madison.
Her
research focuses
on
persuasion processes
and
consumer
behavior.
She has
published
in
Journal
of
Advertising,
Journal
of
Advertising
Re-
search,
Journalism
and
Mass Communication
Quarterly,
Advances
in
Consumer
Research,

2003 Ferber Award
for
best article based
on a
Dissertation published
by
the
Journal
of
Consumer Research.
In
addition
to her
publications
in
academic
journals,
Nordhielm
has
published
in the
Harvard
Business Review,
and her
work
is
also presented
in her
forthcoming book, Marketing Management:
The Big

Prior
to
joining
the
faculty
of the
University
of
Michigan,
Nordhielm
was an
Assistant
Professor
at the
Kellogg School
of
Management
at
Northwestern Univer-
sity.
She was
also
a
Lecturer
in
Marketing
at the
University
of
Chicago Graduate

a
special interest
in the
heuristics used
in
choice. Most
of his
published articles have appeared
in the
Journal
of
Consumer
Research, Journal
of
Marketing
Research, Journal
of
Marketing,
Journal
of
Con-
sumer Psychology, Journal
of
the
Academy
of
Marketing
Science,
and
Journal

interfaces.
He has a
patent
for
creating linear
ex-
periences
on the Web and his
published work
has
appeared
in
such journals
as
Discourse Processes, Cognition
and
Instruction, Reading Research Quarterly,
and
Journal
of
Memory
and
Language
and in
numerous
book
chapters.
Jong-Won Park (Ph.D., University
of
Illinois

on
self-regulatory depletion, superstar
effects
in
advertising,
and
brand
extensions
in
online
and
offline
contexts.
His
work
has
been published
in
Journal
of
Consumer Research, Journal
of
Consumer Psychology, Journal
of
Personality
and
Social Psychology, Journal
of
Consumer
Satisfaction,

She
also
studies
visual persuasion
and its
impact
on
information processing
on and
off/line.
She has
published
her
research
in the
Journal
of
Consumer Research
and
Journal
of
Marketing
Research.
Joseph
E.
Phelps
(Ph.D.,
University
of
Wisconsin-Madison)

has
published
in a
variety
of
marketing
and
advertising journals.
He
served
as
editor
of
volumes
1-3 of
Frontiers
of
Direct
&
Interactive Marketing Research.
He
serves
on the
Editorial Review Boards
of
the
Journal
of
Interactive Advertising,
the

served
as
Head
of the
Advertising Division
(2001-2002)
of the
Association
for
Education
in
Journalism
and
Mass Communi-
cation.
In
2004,
he
served
as the
President
of the
American Academy
of
Adverti-
sing.
Elizabeth Purinton (Ph.D., University
of
Rhode Island)
is an

published
in the
Academy
of
Marketing
Science Review, Journal
of
Electronic Commerce
in
Organizations,
the
Journal
of
Business Research,
and
several conference proceedings.
Niranjan
"Nick"
Raman (Ph.D., University
of
Texas
at
Austin)
is
Vice President
at
ImpactRx Inc. Nick's research
interests
include information processing
and

of
Rhode
Island.
Dr.
Rosen's research interests include
Web
site design, online word-of-
mouth (mouse), inter-organizational relationships,
and
quality management.
Her
research
has
appeared
in the
Journal
of
Business Research, Journal
of
Electronic
Commerce
in
Organizations, International Journal
of
Services
Industry
Manage-
ment,
and
Academy

of
early experience
on
consumer
tastes.
His
papers have appeared
in a
number
of
journals
and
other publications,
including
the
Journal
of
Consumer Research, Journal
of
Marketing Research,
Journal
of
Retailing, Journal
of
Advertising,
and
Journal
of
Consumer Psychol-
ogy.

and
studies
of
consumer
choices.
He is
co-founder, executive committee chair,
and
past Presi-
dent
of the
Judgment/Decision Making Society.
He
served
as
Program Director
of
Decision, Risk,
and
Management Science Program
at the
National Science
Foundation. Presently,
he is the
Director
of the
Judgment
and
Decision Making
Laboratory

on
issues related
to
consumer behavior,
expert systems development,
and
behavioral
research
methodology.
Wendy
Schneier Siegal (Ph.D., Ohio State University) received
her MBA at the
Ohio State University
and a BA in
Psychology
from
Tulane University.
She was
and
Assistant Professor
of
Marketing
at
Boston University School
of
Management
when
this chapter
was
written.

Con-
sumer
Research,
Information
Systems Research, Journal
of
Product Innovation
Management,
and the
CASE
International Journal
of
Educational Advancement.
Eugene Sivadas (Ph.D., Marketing, University
of
Cincinnati)
is
Assistant Profes-
sor of
Marketing, Rutgers Business School—Newark
& New
Brunswick, Rutgers,
The
State University
of New
Jersey.
His
research interests include electronic
and
other forms

Sciences Professor
of
Consumer Behavior
at
Auburn University.
His
research
interests include symbolic consumption, fashion psychology,
and
online consumer
research methodologies.
His
work
has
been published
in
such journals
as the
Jour-
nal
of
Consumer Research, Journal
of
Marketing,
Journal
of
Advertising,
Journal
of
Personality

research
on
consumer behavior
in
online auctions
has
appeared
in
the
International Journal
of
Electronic Marketing
and the
Journal
of
Advertising.
xx
ABOUT
THE
CONTRIBUTORS
Her
research
on the
application
of
gender
and
literary theory
to the
analysis

1995 American Marketing Association Summer Educators' Confer-
ence,
and was
track chair
for the
"Netvertising"
track
in the
American Marketing
Association
2001 Winter
Educators'
Conference.
She is
editor-in-chief
of
Mar-
keting
Theory,
and
co-editor
of the
Routledge Press series
on
"Interpretive Mar-
keting
Research."
She
serves
on

at
Boston
University
School
of
Management.
She
holds
a MA and a BA
from
Hebrew Uni-
versity
in
Jerusalem.
She is
currently
finishing her
dissertation entitled: "Redis-
covering Word
of
Mouth:
An
Ethnomethodological Analysis
of
Word
of
Mouth
Talk
in the
Context

He
served
for
three years
as
Director
of
Comput-
ing
Services
for the
School
of
Business.
His
current
research
focuses
on
Internet
start-ups
and
consumer inferences. Recently,
he
served
as
associate editor
of the
Journal
of

(Ph.D.,
University
of
Michigan) focuses
his
research
on
judgment
and
decision
processes
(including emphases
on
cross-cultural variations); deci-
sion management; decision aiding (including special attention
to
cross-cultural
collaborations
as
well
as
managerial, marketing, medical,
and risk-taking
deci-
sions); judgment analysis
and
training;
and
applications
of

of
Behavioral Decision Making,
a
consulting
editor
for the
Journal
of
Cross-Cultural
Psychology,
and a
member
of the
editorial
review
board
for
Organizational Behavior
and
Human Decision Processes.
His
latest book
is
Decision Management (Jossey-Bass,
2003).
ONLINE CONSUMER
PSYCHOLOGY
Understanding
and
Influencing Consumer

and
Consumer Psychology Conference
in
Seattle, Washington. This
annual
conference
was
sponsored
by the
Society
for
Consumer Psychology (Divi-
sion
23 of the
American Psychological Association) with sponsorship assistance
from
Accenture Institute
for
Strategic Change.
The
conference
and
this book follow
from
the
1996 Advertising
and
Consumer
Psychology Conference
and

and the
important
research questions
at
that time.
The
authors challenged
researchers
to
think
about
the
potential advantages
and
disadvantages
of the Web as an
advertising
medium.
Specifically,
the
authors mentioned
the
need
for
greater
use of
theory
as
well
as

by
authors
in the
current
chapters
allow
us to
gain more insight into
the
consumer's thought
processes
while
online. Many
of the
chapters move beyond research that
is
descriptive
of
consumer
1
HAUGTVEDT, MACHLEIT, YALCH
activities.
The
theories
and
research methods employed
by the
present authors help
provide greater insight into
the

the way in
which
ritual
activities maintain
and
develop
the
culture
of the
community forum. Schindler
and
Bickart examine
published word-of-mouth comments
to
determine
the way in
which product
ex-
periences
and
information
are
communicated
from
consumer
to
consumer within
a
community.
People

second section
in the
book examines issues related
to
Advertising.
The
first
two
chapters
in
this section examine
the
issue
of
click-through rates, albeit
from
different
perspectives. Chandon
and
Chtourou examine factors that
affect
the
rate
at
which individuals will click
on a
banner
ad.
Mitchell
and

of
gaming online (Nelson's article
on
Advergaming)
and
next within
the
context
of
wireless networks (Lynch, Kent,
and
Srinivasan's chapter
on
mobile advertising).
Customization
is the
third section. Crow
and
Shanteau's chapter provides
us
with
reasons
why
consumers customize products
and the
benefits
of
customization.
Godek
and

construction.
The
psychological
effects
of
Site Design
are
considered
next. Omanson,
Cline,
and
Nordhielm's
chapter demonstrates that visual consistency
in the
look
and
feel
of Web
sites
will
affect,
among other things, brand attitudes
of
visitors
to
that
site. Purinton
and
Rosen examine gender
differences

make
better decisions.
The
Fasolo, McClelland,
and
Lange chapter overlaps with
the
next section—
Decision Making. Henry begins
by
asking
the
question
of
whether
the
Internet
empowers consumers
to
make better decisions? Similarly, Mishra
and
Olshavsky
consider whether
the
increased availability
of
information technology (personal
2_