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About This Book
Why is
e-Learning and the Science of Instruction

important?
This is a book about what works in e-learning. Increasingly, organizations are turning to
e-learning to save travel costs and instructional time. In fact since our fi rst edition of this
book, e-learning in both synchronous and asynchronous formats has risen to account for over
one-third of all delivery of workforce instruction. However, dollars saved are only an illusion
if the quality of the training does not pay off in improved job performance.
Many books on the market offer useful advice for design and development of e-learning.
But unlike these books, the guidelines we present are not based on opinion; but rather on
empirical research. Much of this new research is inaccessible to those producing or evaluating
online learning because it has been distributed primarily within the academic research com-
munity. This book bridges the gap by summarizing research-based answers to questions that
practitioners ask about effective e-learning.
What’s new in the third edition?
The popularity of the fi rst two editions is testimony to consumer interest in evidence-based
guidelines on how to best use visuals, text, audio, practice exercises, and examples in
e- learning. In our third edition we have updated all chapters, adding new research, guidelines,
and examples. You will also fi nd a new chapter on the basics of evidence-based training.
To illustrate our guidelines, we have added new storyboards from an asynchronous lesson on
Excel, a synchronous lesson on Excel, and an asynchronous lesson on pharmaceutical sales.
As a result of the popularity of previous editions as a text, we have also added an instruc-
tor guide, which is available on the publisher’s website. Contact your Pfeiffer representative
to access it.
What can you achieve with this book?
If you are a designer, developer, or consumer of e-learning, you can use the guidelines in this
book to ensure that your courseware meets human psychological learning requirements. In

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About Pfeiffer
Pfeiffer serves the professional development and hands-on resource needs of training and
human resource practitioners and gives them products to do their jobs better. We deliver
proven ideas and solutions from experts in HR development and HR management, and we
offer effective and customizable tools to improve workplace performance. From novice to
seasoned professional, Pfeiffer is the source you can trust to make yourself and your organi-
zation more successful.
Essential Knowledge Pfeiffer produces insightful, practical, and comprehen-
sive materials on topics that matter the most to training and HR professionals. Our
Essential Knowledge resources translate the expertise of seasoned professionals into practical,
how-to guidance on critical workplace issues and problems. These resources are supported by
case studies, worksheets, and job aids and are frequently supplemented with CD-ROMs,
websites, and other means of making the content easier to read, understand, and use.
Essential Tools Pfeiffer’s Essential Tools resources save time and expense by
offering proven, ready-to-use materials—including exercises, activities, games, instru-
ments, and assessments—for use during a training or team-learning event. These resources are
frequently offered in looseleaf or CD-ROM format to facilitate copying and customization of
the material.
Pfeiffer also recognizes the remarkable power of new technologies in expanding the reach
and effectiveness of training. While e-hype has often created whizbang solutions in search of
a problem, we are dedicated to bringing convenience and enhancements to proven training
solutions. All our e-tools comply with rigorous functionality standards. The most appropriate
technology wrapped around essential content yields the perfect solution for today’s on-the-
go trainers and human resource professionals.
Essential resources for training and HR professionals

201-748-6011, fax 201-748-6008, or online at />Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this
book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this
book and specifi cally disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fi tness for a particular purpose. No warranty
may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may
not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher
nor author shall be liable for any loss of profi t or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special,
incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Readers should be aware that Internet websites offered as citations and/or sources for further information may have
changed or disappeared between the time this was written and when it is read.
For additional copies/bulk purchases of this book in the U.S. please contact 800-274-4434.
Pfeiffer books and products are available through most bookstores. To contact Pfeiffer directly call our Customer Care
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Pfeiffer also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be
available in electronic books.
ISBN 978-0-470-87430-1 (cloth); 978-1-118-08616-2 (ebk); 978-1-118-08617-9 (ebk); 978-1-118-08621-6 (ebk)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Clark, Ruth Colvin.
E-learning and the science of instruction : proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning /
Ruth C. Clark, Richard E. Mayer. — 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-87430-1 (hardback)
1. Business education—Computer-assisted instruction. I. Mayer, Richard E., 1947- II. Title. III. Title:
ELearning and the science of instruction.
HF1106.C55 2011
658.3'12402854678–dc22
2011012858
Acquiring Editor: Matthew Davis Production Editor: Michael Kay
Marketing Manager: Brian Grimm Editor: Rebecca Taff

How to Interpret No Effect in Experimental Comparisons 57
How to Interpret Research Statistics 58
How Can You Identify Relevant Research? 61
What We Don’t Know About Evidence-Based Practice 62
4. Applying the Multimedia Principle: Use Words and Graphics
Rather Than Words Alone 67
Do Visuals Make a Difference? 69
Multimedia Principle: Include Both Words and Graphics 70
Some Ways to Use Graphics to Promote Learning 74
Psychological Reasons for the Multimedia Principle 78
Evidence for Using Words and Pictures 79
The Multimedia Principle Works Best for Novices 83
Should You Change Static Illustrations into Animations? 84
What We Don’t Know About Visuals 86
5. Applying the Contiguity Principle: Align Words
to Corresponding Graphics 91
Contiguity Principle 1: Place Printed Words Near Corresponding
Graphics 93
Contiguity Principle 2: Synchronize Spoken Words with
Corresponding Graphics 102
Psychological Reasons for the Contiguity Principle 104
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Contents xi
Evidence for Presenting Printed Words Near Corresponding
Graphics 106
Evidence for Presenting Spoken Words at the Same Time
as Corresponding Graphics 109
What We Don’t Know About Contiguity 110
6. Applying the Modality Principle: Present Words as Audio
Narration Rather Than On-Screen Text 115

Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Graphics Added for Interest 161
Evidence for Using Simpler Visuals 164
Coherence Principle 3: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous
Words 166
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Words in
e-Learning 168
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Interest 168
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added to Expand
on Key Ideas 170
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for
Technical Depth 172
What We Don’t Know About Coherence 172
9. Applying the Personalization Principle: Use Conversational
Style and Virtual Coaches 179
Personalization Principle 1: Use Conversational Rather
Than Formal Style 182
Psychological Reasons for the Personalization Principle 183
Evidence for Using Conversational Style 185
Promote Personalization Through Voice Quality 188
Promote Personalization Through Polite Speech 189
Personalization Principle 2: Use Effective On-Screen Coaches
to Promote Learning 191
Personalization Principle 3: Make the Author Visible to Promote
Learning 197
Psychological Reasons for Using a Visible Author 200
Evidence for the Visible Author 200
What We Don’t Know About Personalization 201
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Contents xiii
10. Applying the Segmenting and Pretraining Principles: Managing

xiv
Practice Principle 1: Add Suffi cient Practice Interactions to e-Learning
to Achieve the Objective 257
Practice Principle 2: Mirror the Job 262
Practice Principle 3: Provide Effective Feedback 263
Practice Principle 4: Distribute and Mix Practice Among Learning
Events 267
Practice Principle 5: Apply Multimedia Principles 272
Practice Principle 6: Transition from Examples to Practice
Gradually 274
What We Don’t Know About Practice 274
13. Learning Together Virtually 279
What Is Collaborative Learning? 280
What Is Computer-Supported Collaborative
Learning (CSCL)? 284
Some Generalizations About Collaboration 288
CSCL Research Summaries 292
Structured Controversy 300
CSCL: The Bottom Line 303
What We Don’t Know About CSCL 303
14. Who’s in Control? Guidelines for e-Learning Navigation 309
Learner Control Versus Program Control 311
Do Learners Make Good Instructional Decisions? 315
Learner Control Principle 1: Give Experienced Learners Control 319
Learner Control Principle 2: Make Important Instructional Events
the Default 322
Learner Control Principle 3: Consider Adaptive Control 323
Learner Control Principle 4: Give Pacing Control 327
Learner Control Principle 5: Offer Navigational Support
in Hypermedia Environments 329

What We Don’t Know About Games and Simulations 394
17. Applying the Guidelines 401
Applying Evidence-Based Guidelines to e-Courses 401
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Contents
xvi
e-Lesson Reviews 404
Review of Sample 1: Asynchronous e-Lesson on Excel
for Small Business 409
Review of Sample 2: Synchronous e-Lesson on Excel 414
Review of Sample 3: Automotive Troubleshooting Simulation 418
Refl ections on Past Predictions 421
Beyond 2011 423
In Conclusion 424
References 425
Glossary 453
List of Tables and Figures 475
Name Index 487
Subject Index 493
About the Authors 501
Pfeiffer Publications Guide 503
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xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I
N THIS THIRD EDITION, we have added new sample lessons to
illustrate the application and violation of our principles. We are grateful
for the talents of Mark Palmer, who created the asynchronous Excel and sales
storyboards.
We acknowledge the many instructional researchers throughout the

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e-Learning and the Science of Instruction
2
psychological learning requirements. Although most of our examples focus
on workforce learning, we believe instructional professionals in the educa-
tional and academic arenas can equally benefi t from our guidelines.
Package Components
For this third edition we have added an instructor guide that includes many
resources. The instructor guide is located on the Pfeiffer website. Contact
your Pfeiffer representative for access.
Table I.1 summarizes the content of the book’s chapters. We have added
a new Chapter 3, which describes the basics of evidence-based practice.
We have updated the research in all of the chapters and added new story-
board examples for a lesson on Excel as well as for a more strategic skill of
consultative selling.
Table I.1. A Preview of Chapters.
Chapter Topics
1. e-Learning Promise and
Pitfalls
Our defi nition of e-learning
Evidence on e-learning effectiveness
The promise and pitfalls of e-Learning
Inform versus perform outcome goals
Three architectures for e-learning design
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2. How People Learn from

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5. Applying the Contiguity
Principle: Align Words to
Corresponding Graphics
Evidence for the best placement of text and
graphics on the screen
Evidence for sequencing of text or audio in
conjunction with visuals
Situations in which the contiguity principle is most
applicable as well as the psychological basis for this
principle
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6. Applying the Modality
Principle: Present Words
as Audio Narration Rather
than On-Screen Text
Evidence for presenting words that describe
graphics in audio rather than in text
When the modality principle is and is not applicable
as well as the psychological basis for the principle
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7. Applying the Redundancy
Principle: Explain Visuals
with Words in Audio OR
Text: Not Both

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e-Learning and the Science of Instruction
4
Table I.1. (Continued).
Chapter Topics
10. Applying the Segmenting
and Pre-Training
Principles: Managing
Complexity by Breaking a
Lesson into Parts
Evidence for breaking a continuous lesson into bite-
size segments and allowing learners to access each
segment at their own rate
Evidence for sequencing key concepts in a lesson
prior to the main procedure or process of that
lesson
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11. Leveraging Examples in
e-Learning
Worked examples for well-structured tasks, strategic
tasks, and modeling examples
Evidence and guidelines to transition from examples
to practice assignments through fading
Ways to ensure examples are processed by adding
questions that promote self-explanations or by

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Introduction 5
Table I.1. (Continued).
Chapter Topics
14. Who’s in Control?
Guidelines for e-Learning
Navigation
Distinction between learner and program control
When to use learner versus program control
Techniques for dynamically adapting instruction to
evolving learner needs
Techniques for navigational aids in hypermedia
environments
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15. e-Learning to Build
Thinking Skills
Three types of thinking skills
Evidence on the effectiveness of thinking skills
training programs
Features of and evidence for whole-task instruction
Guidelines for making thinking processes explicit in
e-learning
An introduction to cognitive task analysis to defi ne
expert thinking skills
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