ELECTRICVEHICLES–
MODELLINGAND
SIMULATIONS

EditedbySerefSoylu
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Electric Vehicles – Modelling and Simulations
Edited by Seref Soylu Published by InTech
Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia

Copyright © 2011 InTech
All chapters are Open Access articles distributed under the Creative Commons
Non Commercial Share Alike Attribution 3.0 license, which permits to copy,
distribute, transmit, and adapt the work in any medium, so long as the original
work is properly cited. After this work has been published by InTech, authors
have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they




Contents

Preface IX
Chapter 1 Electrical Vehicle Design and Modeling 1
Erik Schaltz
Chapter 2 Modeling and Simulation of High
Performance Electrical Vehicle Powertrains in VHDL-AMS 25
K. Jaber, A. Fakhfakh and R. Neji
Chapter 3 Control of Hybrid Electrical Vehicles 41
Gheorghe Livinţ, Vasile Horga,
Marcel Răţoi and Mihai Albu
Chapter 4 Vehicle Dynamic Control of 4
In-Wheel-Motor Drived Electric Vehicle 67
Lu Xiong and Zhuoping Yu
Chapter 5 A Robust Traction Control for
Electric Vehicles Without Chassis Velocity 107
Jia-Sheng Hu, Dejun Yin and Feng-Rung Hu
Chapter 6 Vehicle Stability Enhancement Control for
Electric Vehicle Using Behaviour Model Control 127
Kada Hartani and Yahia Miloud
Chapter 7 FPGA Based Powertrain Control for Electric Vehicles 159
Ricardo de Castro, Rui Esteves Araújo and
Diamantino Freitas
Chapter 8 Global Design and Optimization of a Permanent Magnet

Chapter 17 Design and Analysis of Multi-Node
CAN Bus for Diesel Hybrid Electric Vehicle 385
XiaoJian Mao, Jun hua Song,
Junxi Wang, Hang bo Tang and Zhuo bin
Chapter 18 Sugeno Inference Perturbation
Analysis for Electric Aerial Vehicles 397
John T. Economou and Kevin Knowles
Chapter 19 Extended Simulation of an Embedded Brushless
Motor Drive (BLMD) System for Adjustable Speed
Control Inclusive of a Novel Impedance Angle
Compensation Technique for Improved Torque
Control in Electric Vehicle Propulsion Systems 417
Richard A. Guinee

Preface

Electric vehicles are becoming promising alternatives to be remedy for urban air 
pollution, green house gases and depletion of the finite fossil fuel resources (the
challenging triad) as they use centrally generated electricity as a power source. It is
well known that power generation at centralized pl ants are much more
efficient and

X Preface

Astheeditorofthisbook,Iwouldliketoexpressmygratitudetothechapterauthors
for submitting such valuable works that were already published or presented  in
prestigious journals andconferences. I  hopeyou will getmaximum benefitfromthis
booktotaketheurbantransportsystemtoa
sustainablelevel.

SerefSoylu,PhD
SakaryaUniversity,DepartmentofEnvironmentalEngineering,Sakarya,
Turkey



0
Electrical Vehicle Design and Modeling
Erik Schaltz
Aalborg University
Denmark
1. Introduction
Electric vehicles are by many seen as the cars of the future as they are high efficient, produces
no local pollution, are silent, and can be used for power regulation by the grid operator.
However, electric vehicles still have critical issues which need to be solved. The three main
challenges are limited driving range, long charging time, and high cost. The three main
challenges are all related to the battery package of the car. The battery package should both
contain enough energy in order to have a certain driving range and it should also have a
sufficient power capability for the accelerations and decelerations. In order to be able to
estimate the energy consumption of an electric vehicles it is very important to have a proper
model of the vehicle (Gao et al., 2007; Mapelli et al., 2010; Schaltz, 2010). The model of an
electric vehicle is very complex as it contains many different components, e.g., transmission,

phase AC voltage suitable for the electric machine. When analyzing the energy consumption
of an electric vehicle it is important also to include the losses due to the components which
not are a part of the power chain from the grid to the wheels. These losses are denoted as
auxiliary loss and includes the lighting system, comfort system, safety systems, etc. During
the regenerative braking it is important that the maximum voltage of the battery is not
exceeded. For this reason a braking resistor is introduced. The rectifier rectifies the three
phase voltages and currents of the grid to DC levels and the boost converter makes it possible
to transfer power from the low voltage side of the rectifier to the high voltage side of the
battery.
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Fig. 1. Architecture of the battery electric vehicle. In the figure the main components of the
vehicles which have an influence on the energy consumption of the vehicle is shown.
2.2 Force Model
The forces which the electric machine of the vehicle must overcome are the forces due to
gravity, wind, rolling resistance, and inertial effect. These forces can also be seen in Fig. 2
where the forces acting on the vehicle are shown.
f
wind
f
t
f
rr
f
I
v
car
f
g
f
n
α
Fig. 2. Free body diagram of the forces (thick arrows) acting on the car.

· g ·cos(α) ·c
rr
  
f
rr
+ sign(v
car
+ v
wind
)
1
2
ρ
air
C
drag
A
front
(
v
car
+ v
wind
)
2
  
f
wind
(1)
c

[
N
]
Gravitational force of the vehicle
f
n
[
N
]
Normal force of the vehicle
f
wind
[
N
]
Force due to wind resistance
α
[
rad
]
Angle of the driving surface
M
car
[
kg
]
Mass of the vehicle
v
car
[

[
−
]
Tire rolling resistance coefficient
C
drag
[
−
]
Aerodynamic drag coefficient
A
front

m
2

Front area
v
wind
[
m/s
]
Headwind speed
2.3 Auxiliary loads
The main purpose of the battery is to provide power for the wheels. However, a modern car
have also other loads which the battery should supply. These loads are either due to safety,
e.g., light, wipers, horn, etc. and/or comfort, e.g., radio, heating, air conditioning, etc. These
loads are not constant, e.g., the power consumption of the climate system strongly depend on
the surrounding temperature. Even though some average values are suggested which can be
seen in Table 1. From the table it may be understood that the total average power consumption

(4)
ω
w
=
v
car
r
w
(5)
p
t
= f
t
v
car
,(6)
where τ
t
[
Nm
]
Traction torque
τ
w
[
Nm
]
Torque of each driving wheel
r
w

, p
t
< 0
τ
t
η
TS
G
, p
t
≥ 0
(7)
ω
s
= Gω
w
(8)
p
s
= τ
s
ω
s
,(9)
where τ
s
[
Nm
]
Shaft torque of electric machine

+ L
d
di
d
dt
−ω
e
L
q
i
q
(10)
v
q
= R
s
i
q
+ L
q
di
q
dt
+ ω
e
L
d
i
d
+ ω

q
[
V
]
Q-axis voltage
i
d
[
A
]
D-axis current
i
q
[
A
]
Q-axis current
R
s
[
Ω
]
Stator phase resistance
L
d
[
H
]
D-axis inductance
L

τ
e
= J
s
dω
s
dt
+ B
v
ω
s
+ τ
c
+ τ
s
(13)
p
s
= τ
s
ω
s
, (14)
where J
s

kgm
2

Shaft moment of inertia

q
+

L
d
− L
q

i
d
i
q

(15)
ω
e
=
P
2
ω
s
, (16)
where P
[
−
]
Number of poles
2.6 In verter
A circuit diagram of the inverter can be seen in Fig. 3. The inverter transmits power between
the electric machine (with phase voltages v

p
Q,Inv
=

1
8
+
m
i
3π

R
Q,Inv
ˆ
I
2
p
+

1
2π
+
m
i
8
cos
(φ
EM
)


8
cos
(φ
EM
)

V
D,th,Inv
ˆ
I
p
(18)
m
i
=
2
ˆ
V
p
V
Bat
, (19)
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Electrical Vehicle Design and Modeling
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Fig. 3. Circuit diagram of inverter.
where p
Q,Inv

m
i
[
−
]
Modulation index
V
Bat
[
V
]
Battery voltage
R
Q,Inv
[
Ω
]
Inverter switch resistance
R
D,Inv
[
Ω
]
Inverter diode resistance
V
Q,th,Inv
[
V
]
Inverter switch threshold voltage

=
3
2
R
Inv
ˆ
I
2
p
+
6
π
V
th,Inv
ˆ
I
p
. (20)
The output power of the inverter is the motor input power p
EM
. The inverter input power
and efficiency are therefore
p
Inv
= v
Bat
i
Inv
= p
EM

[
W
]
Inverter input power
η
Inv
[
−
]
Inverter efficiency
6
Electric Vehicles – Modelling and Simulations
Electrical Vehicle Design and Modeling 7
2.7 Battery
The battery pack is the heart of an electric vehicle. Many different battery types exist, e.g.,
lead-acid, nickel-metal hydride, lithium ion, etc. However, today the lithium ion is the
preferred choice due to its relatively high specific energy and power. In this chapter the
battery model will be based on a Saft VL 37570 lithium ion cell. It’s specifications can be
seen in Table 2.
Maximum voltage V
Bat,max,cell
4.2 V
Nominal voltage V
Bat,nom,cell
3.7 V
Minimum voltage V
Bat,min,cell
2.5 V
1 h capacity Q
1,cell

Bat,cell
=

v
Bat,int,cell
− R
Bat,cell,dis
i
Bat,cell
, i
Bat,cell
≥ 0
v
Bat,int,cell
− R
Bat,cell,cha
i
Bat,cell
, i
Bat,cell
< 0,
(23)
where v
Bat,cell
[
V
]
Battery cell voltage
v
Bat,int,cell

= a
10
DoD
10
Bat
+ a
9
DoD
9
Bat
+ a
8
DoD
8
Bat
+ a
7
DoD
7
Bat
+ a
6
DoD
6
Bat
+ a
5
DoD
5
Bat

10
Bat
+ b
9
DoD
9
Bat
+ b
8
DoD
8
Bat
+ b
7
DoD
7
Bat
+ b
6
DoD
6
Bat
+ b
5
DoD
5
Bat
+ b
4
DoD

Bat
+ c
8
DoD
8
Bat
+ c
7
DoD
7
Bat
+ c
6
DoD
6
Bat
+ c
5
DoD
5
Bat
+ c
4
DoD
4
Bat
+ c
3
DoD
3

= 60.5, a
2
= -4.8, a
1
=0.2, a
0
=0.0
b
10
= -8848, b
9
= 40727, b
8
= -79586, b
7
= 86018, b
6
= -56135, b
5
= -5565
b
4
= 784, b
3
= -25, b
2
= 55, b
1
=0, b
0

Bat
= Do D
Bat,ini
+

i
Bat,eq,cell
Q
Bat,1,cell
dt (27)
SoC
Bat
= 1 −DoD
Bat
(28)
where Do D
Bat
[
−
]
Depth-of-discharge
DoD
Bat,ini
[
−
]
Initial depth-of-discharge
SoC
Bat
[

Bat,cell
, i
Bat,cell
< 0
(29)
k
=

1,i
Bat,cell
≤ I
Bat,1,cell
1.125 , i
Bat,cell
> I
Bat,1,cell
,
(30)
where k
[
−
]
Peukert number
η
Bat,cha
= 0.95
[
−
]
Charging efficiency

C/5 Calculated
C/2 Data sheet
C/2 Calculated
1C Data sheet
1C Calculated
2C Data sheet
2C Calculated
Voltage v
Bat,cell
[
V
]
Fig. 5. Data sheet values (Saft, 2010) and calculations of the battery voltage during constant
discharge currents.
2.8 Boost converter
The circuit diagram of the boost converter can be seen in Fig. 6. The losses of the boost
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. In order to simplify it is assumed
that the resistances and threshold voltages of the switch Q
BC
and diode D
BC
are equal, i.e.,
R
BC
= R
Q,BC
= R
D,RF
and V
th,BC
= V
Q,th,BC
= V
D,th,BC
. The power equations of the boost
converter are therefore given by
P
RF
= V
RF
i
RF
= P
BC
+ P
Loss,BC

BC
[
W
]
Output power of boost converter
P
Loss,BC
[
W
]
Power loss of boost converter
V
RF
[
V
]
Input voltage of boost converter
V
th,BC
[
V
]
Threshold voltage of switch and diode
R
BC
[
Ω
]
Resistance of switch and diode
i

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Fig. 7. Electric circuit diagram of the rectifier.
The average rectified current, voltage, and power are given by (Mohan et al., 2003)
i
RF
= I
Grid

3
2
(34)
V
RF
=
3
√
2
π
V
LL
−2R
RF
i

RF
i
2
RF
+ 2V
th,RF
i
RF
, (38)
where I
Grid
[
A
]
Grid RMS-current
P
Grid
[
W
]
Power of three phase grid
P
loss,RF
[
W
]
Total loss of the rectifier
R
RF
[

The maximum rectified voltage can be calculated from Equation 35 in no-load mode, i.e.,
V
RF,max
=
3
√
2
π
V
LL
=
3
√
2
π
400 V
= 540 V. (39)
In order to insure boost operation during charging the rectified voltage of the rectifier should
always be greater than this value. The required number of series connected cells is therefore
N
Bat,s
=
V
RF,max
V
Bat,cell,min
=
540 V
2.5 V
≈ 216 cells. (40)

Vehicle model
v_vehicle [km/h]
d_v_vehicle_dt [m/s^2]
v_wind [m/s]
alpha [rad]
f_t [N]
Transmission system
v_vehicle [km/h]
f_t [N]
w_s [rad/s]
tau_s [Nm]
Rectifier model
i_RF [A]
v_RF [V]
Inverter model
I_p_peak [A]
p_EM [W]
v_Bat [V]
i_Inv [A]
From
Workspace1
[t d_v_car_dt]
From
Workspace
[t v_car]
Electric machine
w_s [rad/s]
tau_s [Nm]
I_p_peak [A]
p_EM [W]

applied. In this process the number of parallel strings N
Bat,p
is either increased or decreased.
When the minimum possible number of parallel strings that fulfills both the energy and power
requirements of the battery has been found the “Simulation routine”-process is executed in
order to calculate the grid energy due to the final number of parallel strings.
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Fig. 9. Sizing procedure of the battery electric vehicle.
In principle all the energy of a battery could be used for the traction. However, in order to
prolong the lifetime of the battery it is usually recommended not to charge it to more than
90 % of its rated capacity and not to discharge it below SoC
Bat,min
= 20 %, i.e., only 70 %
of the available energy is therefore utilized. In Fig. 10 it can be seen how the “Calculate

Electrical Vehicle Design and Modeling