7
Color and Weave Relationship
in Woven Fabrics
Kavita Mathur
1
and Abdel-Fattah M. Seyam
2

1
Precision Fabrics Group Inc., Greensboro NC
2
College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh NC
USA
1. Introduction
In woven designs from colored threads, a colored pattern is a consequence of two possible
arrangements where warp is over the weft or vice versa. Thus the primary elements of
woven fabric design are combination of weaves and blending of colors using such weaves.
Weave is the scheme or plan of interlacing the warp and weft yarns that produce the
integrated fabric. Weave relates specially to the build or structure of the fabric. Color is
differently related to effects of weave and form. The methods of utilization of color in
woven textiles depend upon the composition of the weave design to be woven and the
structure parameters of the cloth.
Color and ornamentation in woven fabrics is imparted through the pre-determined
placement and interlacing of particular sequences of yarns. A solid color is produced by
employing the same color in warp and weft. On the other hand, different colors may be
combined to produce either a mixed or intermingled color effect in which the composite hue
appears as a solid color. Figured ornamentation is created through the selection of different
groups of colored yarns, placed in the warp and/or in the weft; while in certain patterns,
textural effects may be created entirely through the use of different values and closely
associated hues of certain colors. The figure is formed for the purpose of displaying different
pattern formations, adding dimension or color reinforcement and for enhancing a particular

time consuming process of prototyping and color matching in woven fabric design.
2. Woven fabric design and structure
This section introduces the reader to the basic knowledge of woven fabrics design and
structure and the concept on how colored patterns are created using colored yarns. It sets
the stage for the next sections that deal with objective evaluation of color in woven
structures.
Woven fabrics are formed by interlacing two orthogonal sets of yarns; warp yarns that are
vertically arranged and weft yarns that are horizontally placed. While all weave structures
are created from a binary system (that is a warp yarn is over or under a weft yarn at the
crossover areas), infinite number of weaves can be formed. The distribution of interlacement
is known as weave design or pattern. There are three types of weaves that are known as
basic weaves, which include plain weave (the simplest and smallest repeat size possible; 2
warp yarns x 2 weft yarns) and its derivatives, twill weaves and their derivatives, and
satin/sateen weaves and their derivatives. These basic weaves are characterized by their
simplicity, small size, ease of formation, and recognition. However, they form the base for
creating any complex/intricate structures (such as multi-layer fabrics and pile weave
structures) and weaves with extremely large patterns that are known as Jacquard designs.
Figures 1-3 show examples of basic weaves. More on the rules to construct basic weaves and
their derivatives can be found in Seyam 2001.
(a) Flat view (b) Weave design
Fig. 1. Plain weave
We
f
t
Yarn
s
Warp Ends
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4. Color effects Fig. 5. Color simulation of the plain weave of Figure 1 Fig. 6. Color simulation of the sateen weave of Figure 3
Thus, the use of colored warp and weft yarns combined with the weave structures permit the
development of striking patterns. For a given pattern with multi-color, a color can be
strategically placed in the pattern by merely using the binary system of warp and weft
interlacing. The desired color of a yarn appears when the yarn is over the crossing yarns for a
desired length and small or large area if several yarns are used. Moreover, numerous mixtures
of colors to produce other colors can be obtained from few colors of the warp and weft yarns
through proper weave interlacing. Figures 5 and 6 are two examples of such mixtures. They
were produced using many repeats in warp and weft directions, thread count close to real
cloth, and assuming there are no spaces between the yarns, which is reasonable assumption

Color and Weave Relationship in Woven Fabrics
133
for most woven fabrics. Figure 5 is the color simulation produced from red warp yarns and
blue weft yarns and plain weave of Figure 4(a). While the color simulation of Figure 5 is
produced from red warp yarns and blue weft yarns woven in sateen of Figure 4(c). These two
examples indicate that numerous purple colors can be produced from only two colors (red and
blue). Using this concept striking patterns can be created using few colors in warp and weft
directions such as the Jacquard design of Figure 7.
designer can easily modify the design, and can change the weaves to recolor the design as
required. All these developments have greatly increased the ease of woven fabric designing.
It is now possible to perform the entire process on a personal computer, and then transfer
the ready-to-weave file (electronic punch-card file) via the internet, direct to the dobby or
Jacquard controller at the loom, or to some interim storage area.
Textile CAD/CAM systems are mainly modular in structure and, in addition to covering
yarn and fabric design may also include very realistic 3D simulation packages. A complete
automated process with immediate response to the customer’s demand seems to be a reality
in the near future with these systems (Dolezal & Mateja 1995; Bojic 1999; Dimitrovski & Bojic
1999). Moreover, developments of powerful modem systems and electronic controls have
brought the weaving machine into the design studio. This evolution has, in turn, given an
entirely new meaning to the term Quick Response.
The impetus for use of CAD in the textile industry was to improve efficiency in the
production process. Initial textile designing software packages were mainly derived from
graphic design software, without putting much emphasis upon the underlying fabric
structures. CAD systems have evolved, however, by considering the designing process and
technical limitations. These systems are now extensions of creative expression which comply
with technical requirements (Doctor 1997). Numerous descriptions of this process exist
within the computer environment (Lourie 1969, 1973; Lourie & Bonin 1968; Lourie & Lornzo
1966) addressing, algorithmically, the problems that arise when one attempts to harmonize
visual pattern with the notational point paper diagrams of those used for warp and weft
interlacing.
Innovation in the field of textile design CAD systems for woven fabrics has provided the
opportunity to design intricate fabrics with the use of a variety of tools. There is also the
possibility of seeing the resultant fabric on a computer monitor that gives the visualization
of real fabric prior to weaving. There is constant improvement and development in the CAD
system to develop several design features (CAD tools) to keep pace with new market
demands. At ITMA 2003, 40 companies exhibited CAD systems. Most of the weaving
machinery companies showed CAD systems as an accessory. Many CAD companies
(UVOD, Fractal Graphics, Yxendis, ScotWeave, EAT, NedGraphics, Pointcarré, Mucad,
Fig. 9. Subtractive Color Mixing (McDonald 1997)

Advances in Modern Woven Fabrics Technology
136
c. Optical Color Mixing is also known as Partitive Color Mixing because optical mixtures
combine additive and subtractive color mixing phenomenon. This is an effective
method of creating mixtures that appear to vibrate and mix at particular distances when
small areas of color are juxtaposed as shown in Figure 10. Fig. 10. The Optical mixture (c) is a result of weaving the yarn used in sample (a) with yarn
used in sample (b) (Lambert, Staepelaere & Fry 1986)
Partitive color achieved in woven fabrics does not follow the same rules as the other cases
(such as in additive and subtractive color mixing), presumably because the individual yarns
are not completely opaque and moreover the fabrics are made from blends of several
colored yarns with different weave effects.
Furthermore, the relation between the color values of different colors and their size must be
carefully considered. When two colors are in juxtaposition with each other, each takes on
the complement of its neighbor. This is known as law of ‘Simultaneous Contrast’. In woven
fabrics, the appearance of the color is a consequence of light reflected back from different
areas of color surface of the yarns involved in the fabric structure. Looking at the color
wheel (Figure 11), if color values of warp and weft are taken into account, behavior of the
color contrast and harmony can be well understood.
Complementary colors lie on the opposite sides of the color circle, and their sum of reflected
light gives an unsaturated color, which can be observed as a grayish hue on the fabric. On
the other hand, the close positioning of two harmonic colors gives similar color value.
In woven designs, in case where fabric is made of multi-colored yarns, the final visualized
color is a contribution of each color component present on the surface of the structure.

true in the world of computer generated color. Each color device used in CAD and
production, including monitors, desktop printers, and commercial four-color process
printers, have unique definitions and limitations for color by virtue of their own unique
technology (Ross 2004).
Hoskins et al. (1983, 1985) developed an algorithm to analyze the color of woven structures.
Since size of the design and restricted color sets were the limitation for the industry
requirements, this algorithm was developed to provide the possibility of capturing any kind

Advances in Modern Woven Fabrics Technology
138
of image by the system. The system could then provide important elements of color in the
image without compromising the storage requirements or degrading the system’s response
time. Rich (1986) discussed the basic colorimetry of CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) displays, both
instrumental and visual, as applied to textile design systems. His paper emphasized CRT-
based graphical displays to generate colored images. He also suggested some technical
aspects for accurate and repeatable representation of the weave and color of the textile on
display. Similarly, Takatera and Shinohara (1988) developed a search algorithm to
determine the color-ordering of the yarns and weave, to obtain a given pattern of color-and-
weave effect. Dawson (2002) examined color-and-weave effects with small repeat sizes. He
studied the effects of yarn color sequences over several weave repeats. Grundler and Rolich
(2003) proposed an evolution algorithm to combine the weave and color, in order to have a
predetermined idea of the appearance of the fabric to be produced. Based on the algorithm,
software was then developed to access different fabric patterns and allowed the creation of
new patterns, based on the user’s choice.
Colors displayed via computer monitors cannot be specified independently. Therefore, color
is considered as one of the major aspects of a user-centered design process. Most current
CAD systems use uncalibrated color and, in consequence, designers are unable to define or
communicate accurately the color of the image-design effect that they produce on the
computer screen. A system with calibrated colors gives precise definitions for all colors seen.
The numerical specifications for colors used in current CAD systems are expressed in terms

imaging system is a powerful tool for color management (Randall 2004).
4. Advances in color and weave design
Recently, a number of technological advancements have been introduced by weaving
machine producers, such as: high speed weaving, higher levels of automation, new
shedding concepts, automatic (on the fly) pattern change, and filling color selection. Along
with the advances in weaving, significant development has also occurred in the field of
CAD systems, which enables automation in the design process. Despite this automation, the
process of assigning weaves/colors is still done by the designers or CAD operator, which
therefore requires physical sampling prior to production. This section includes the recent
research work done to automate the process of assigning weaves/colors in order to reduce
or even eliminate the need for physical sampling and to assist woven fabric designers in the
creation of pictorial fabrics that are a very close match to the original “artwork” or target.
Fig. 12. Cover factor calculation for a Plain weave fabric
In woven fabrics, which are highly textured, various patterns become visible through their
different structures. The color of such patterns also depends upon the color of the yarns
involved, their combinations and different structures on the pattern surface. The final visible
color on the fabric surface is mainly due to the contribution of fabric covering properties,
namely optical cover and geometric cover (Lord 1973; Adanur 2001, Peirce 1937). The optical
cover properties are defined as the reflection and scattering of the incident light by the fabric
surface and are a function of the fiber material and fabric surface. Geometric cover
(characterized by fabric cover factor) is defined as the area of fabric actually covered by
fibers and yarns. Fabric cover factor is the ratio of surface area actually covered by yarns, to
the total fabric surface area (shown in Figure 12).
The following Equations are used to calculate total fabric surface area covered by warp and
weft yarns;

Advances in Modern Woven Fabrics Technology

calculated fabric color values and measured fabric simulation color values from the
measured color values of a real fabric with identical parameters. Theoretical calculations of
color values of a fabric made from single colored warp and filling yarns were reported,
based on constructional parameters of each yarn in the fabric. By using fabric geometry,
fractions of individual color components in a color repeat was calculated and CIELAB color
space was then used to calculate color difference tolerance. This method was experimented
for the fabrics composed from single colored warp and filling yarns, where the weave
design is divided into two units (when warp is interlaced with weft and vice versa.
However, a weave design with varying warp/filling colors and diameters will have more
than two units, which was not explained in this study. Also, no specific explanation
(assumptions) regarding yarn diameter and yarn spacing was provided. For their
calculation purpose, yarn diameter was measured (using microscope), which actually
requires weaving a fabric and hence, defeat the purpose of predicting color proportions.
Dimitrovski & Gabrijelcic (2002) also discussed that the accuracy of prediction greatly
depends upon the type of yarn. Multifilament yarn with relatively small number of twists
tends to relatively big deformations of the diameter in the interlacing points, where
deformations depend upon the type and the parameters of the yarns with which they
interlace on the fabric surface. Deformation in the yarn diameter at interlacing points also
depends upon the constructional and technological parameters the warp and the weft
tension and reed plan are most important. Due to considerable deformability of such yarns
their spectrophotometrically measured color values vary as well, so that it is difficult to
accurately predict the color values of the woven surfaces. The effect of the technological
parameters on the color values discussed in the paper was not, however, experimentally
verified.
Mathur et. al. 2007, developed a model using the same cover factor principle discussed
above that enables calculation of color proportions on the fabric surface in terms of weave
pattern and color sequence of warp and weft yarns. The following assumptions were made
for the calculations: yarn diameters were uniform cylinders, warp spacing at the weave
intersection and under the float are of same value, pick spacing at the weave intersection
and under the float were of same value, the projection (two-dimensional) of the fabric on a

high value (or light color), while a low level of total light reflectance results in a low value
(or dark color). If light from a surface is organized and reflected in a single direction, as
happens with light from a single large flat shape, the surface appears either very light (if it is
reflecting toward the viewer) or dark (if it is reflecting away from the viewer). If light is
scattered from a surface in many directions, as happens with light from a curved surface, a
uniform value will be seen from all points of view (Lambert, Staepelaere & Fry 1986; Berns
2000; McDonald 1997).
4.1 Color prediction model
Recent research (Mathur et. al. 2005, 2008, and 2009) provided a method to calculate the
contribution of each color in an area of a pattern through numerical examples. The method
utilized in this research is tedious, especially in the case of large patterns with numerous
warp and filling yarns, colors, and weaves. Additionally, the method cannot be
programmed to enable the automatic calculations of color contribution from basic design
parameters. In this section, a generalized model is discussed briefly that enables the user of
a computer simulation to input basic design parameters. The basic parameters used in the
generalized model are warp and filling yarns linear densities, warp and pick densities,
weave, color arrangements of warp and filling yarns, and color of the background. With
proper computer programming of the model, a suitable color mixing equation (Mathur
2007), and databases of yarns colors, yarns, and weave, the process of color/weave selection
could be automated without operator/designer intervention and without the need to weave
color gamut (Seyam and Mathur 2008).
Figure 13 demonstrate an example to provide a clear understanding of the parameters
involved the modeling and the contribution of each color component. Figure 13 is a flat view
of 2x2 L.H. Twill with various warp and filling colored yarns (warp color arrangement: 1
purple, 1 light blue, 1 red and filling color arrangement: 1 dark blue, 1 green, 1 black). Using
the generalized model, area of each color in the pattern can be calculated using Equations 4-
6.

Advances in Modern Woven Fabrics Technology
142

pl pl


(5)
The fraction of the area covered by the background color (white in Figure 2) is,

112 212 112 2
11 2 2 1 2
()( )()( )
1
b f
pdpdll pdpd
cc
pl pl p p
 

 (6)
Where,
m
1i
= number of warp yarns of warp color I
m
2j
= number of filling yarns of filling color j
l
1
= number of ends/weave and color combined repeat = LCM (n
1
, m
1

1
Repeat Width
Repeat Length
d
1
p
2
-d
2
p
1
p
2
d
2
p
1
-d
1
p
1
p
2
d
2
p
1
-d
1


y1
= warp yarn density in g/cm
3
;
1

= warp yarn packing
fraction/factor = ρ
y1
/ρ
f1
;
d
2
= filling yarn diameter, cm =
2
22
1
280.2
f
N


; N
2
= Filling yarn linear density (g/km or tex);
ρ
f2
= filling fiber density in g/cm
3

1
d
2
= cross over area where a warp (or filling) yarn is over a filling (or warp) yarn
n
co1
= number of cross over areas where warp is over filling/weave repeat
n
co2
= number of cross over areas where filling is over warp/weave repeat
The detailed discussion of the generalized model along with derivation and examples are
discussed elsewhere (Seyam and Mathur 2008). A numerical example is provided in
Appendix 1 to demonstrate the use of Equations 4-6 and to investigate the effect of weave
and color pattern of warp and filling yarns on the contribution of each color used to
construct the weave design.
The color proportion data obtained from this model can be employed in color models to
obtain colorimetric calculation to predict the final color values of woven structures.
Kubelka-Munk theory (K/S model) is commonly used to model the color of various forms
of textile materials, with applications including computer color matching formulation,
paints, printing and plastics coloration. To determine the most appropriate color model to
use with different structures, a number of Kubelka-Munk theory based approaches were
employed (Mathur 2007). In terms of textile structures, these previous works dealt with dye
formulation for color matching of woven and knitted structures made from uncolored
yarns. Other workers dealt with homogeneous mix of colored fibers to obtain a set color
target for fabrics made from such fibers including nonwovens. In the following equations,
the color contributions of dyes were replaced with the color contribution of each colored
yarn a woven pattern as predicted from the model (Equations 4-6), and therefore the
derived equations can be used to calculate the colorimetric values as:



log c c c
SSSS


 

(8)
Where,
K = Light Absorption coefficient

Advances in Modern Woven Fabrics Technology
144
S = Light Scattering coefficient
(/)
mix
KS
=


K
S
of the woven area
(/)
s
i
KS =


K
S

th
colorant in the mixture
(/)
b
KS=


K
S
of the background
c
1i
= fraction cover of warp with warp color i (proportion of i
th
colorant in the mixture)
c
2j
= fraction cover of filling with color j (proportion of j
th
colorant in the mixture) Fig. 14. a) Current/Traditional Design Process - Weave selection and sample matching still
require the intervention of designer, who works from color gamut (blanket) Fig. 14. b) Implementation of the Model in the scheme of the design process

Color and Weave Relationship in Woven Fabrics
145

arrangement, specific weaves within the classified weaves.
In case if the color differences are out of tolerance, the program reports to the user and
suggests possible changes to the input parameters. This iteration continues until a
reasonable match for each color in the artwork is achieved.
Below is an example to demonstrate the use of Equations 4-6 and to investigate the effect of
weave and color pattern of warp and filling yarns on the contribution of each color used to
construct the weave as shown in Figure 13. In this example, there are seven colors and the
contribution of each color can be calculated from Equations 4-6. From the design parameters
of Table 1, the parameters required for the color contribution can be calculated as shown
below.

Construction Parameters
Fabric
ID
Warp Yarn Filling Yarn Warp
Density

(end/cm)

Pick
Density
(picks/cm)

Weave
n
co1
n
co2

tex Material

White
Light Blue 1 Green 1
Red 1 Black 1
Table 1. Construction and color parameters of fabrics with different weaves
d
1
= warp yarn diameter, cm = 0.020469 cm; d
2
= filling yarn diameter, cm = 0.020469 cm; p
1

= warp spacing = 1/P
1
= 1/41 cm; p
2
= pick spacing = = 1/P
2
= 1/24 cm; c
1
= warp fraction
cover = d
1
/p
1
= 0.020469*41 = 0.839; c
2
= filling fraction cover = d
2
/p
2

(defined below)
are weave dependent as shown in Table 1.

Color and Weave Relationship in Woven Fabrics
147
n
co1
= number of cross over areas where warp is over filling/weave repeat
n
co2
= number of cross over areas where filling is over warp/weave repeat
The example under consideration has equal number of warp (or filling) yarns per color,
thus,
m
1i
= number of warp yarns of the i
th
warp color = 4; m
2j
= number of filling yarns of the j
th

filling color = 4
Now all the parameters needed for the calculations of each color contribution are known.
Since there are three warp colors, three filling colors, and a background color, seven color
contributions are required. These are:
c
11
= fraction cover of warp with warp color 1 (Purple); c
12

Total 1.000

1.000

1.000
Table 2. Color contribution of different weaves
The results of Table 2 indicate that the weave has a significant effect on the contribution of
colors. For example, the purple color appeared on an area on the fabric surface of 17.7% for
3x1 twill weave. The same color covered 24.5% of the fabric surface by changing the weave
to 2x2 twill. These two weaves are of the same size and interlacing (same tightness), but
differ only in the number of crossover areas where warp yarn is over filling yarns. The effect
of spacing can also be seen from the results of Table 2. For each weave of Table 2, a warp
color dominated more area than a filling color. This is attributed to the fact that warp
density (ends/cm) is higher than the pick density (picks/cm).
5. Conclusion
Color blending in woven fabrics is defined as the process of mixing color by combining
different colored yarn components to produce a homogenous color appearance. Different
colored yarns are mixed in certain proportion to obtain a required color. The final color is a
function of the constructional parameters that manifest changes in the area of each yarn on
the surface. The colorimetric data of the weave structures can be calculated by using the
combined effect of the two aspects of fabric covering power, the optical (reflectance) and the

Advances in Modern Woven Fabrics Technology
148
geometric. The geometric model is discussed in this chapter combined with suitable color
mixing model can be used to calculate colorimetric attributes on the surface of the woven
fabric. These calculations can be easily programmed and the process of assigning
weaves/colors can now be automated and therefore the subjective intervention of the
designer is no longer needed. This will help in eliminating the need for physical sampling
prior to production and the subjective opinions as the color/weave selection will be done

Decade", Tekstilec, vol. 42, no. 11-12, pp. 371-375.
Doctor, V. 1997, "Selecting Aesthetically Imaginative and Technically Sound “CAD” System
for Textiles", 42nd Joint Technological Conference.
Dolezal, B. & Mateja, B.B. 1995, "Computer Aided Design in Jacquard Weaving", Tekstilec,
vol. 38, no. 9, pp. 237-247.
Dupont, D., Steen, D. & Caze, C. 2001, "Modeling color alterations after the spinning
process", Textile Research Journal, vol. 71, no. 9, pp. 755-761.