VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES ĐOÀN THỊ THU PHƢƠNG THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE
LEARNING STRATEGIES AND ENGLISH
PROFICIENCY OF 4
TH
YEAR STUDENTS AT FELTE,
ULIS, VNU
Mô
́
i quan hê
̣
giƣ
̃
a chiê
́
n lƣơ
̣
c ho
̣
c tâ
̣
p ngôn ngƣ
̃
va

i quan hê
̣
giƣ
̃
a chiê
́
n lƣơ
̣
c ho
̣
c tâ
̣
p ngôn ngƣ
̃
va
̀
trình độ
tiếng Anh của sinh viên năm thứ 4 khoa Sƣ Phạm Tiếng
Anh, trƣờng Đại học Ngoại Ngữ - ĐHQGHN

M.A. COMBINED PROGRAMME THESIS

Major:
English Teaching Methodology
Major code:
60 14 10
Supervisor:
Dr. Đỗ Tuấn Minh
3.2.2. Questionnaires 29
3.2.3. Interviews 31
3.3. Procedures of data collection 32
3.4. Procedures of data analysis 34
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Frequency of language learning strategy use 36
4.2. The correlation between students‟ language learning strategies and their
English proficiency 46
4.3. Key strategies and potential factors affecting strategy use 48
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
5.1. Major findings of the study 69
5.2. Contributions of the study 71
5.3. Limitations of the study 72
5.3. Suggestions for further research 73
REFERENCES 74
APPENDICES I 1

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
PAGE
Table 2.1. Classification of learning strategies (1975-1985) (Olga, 2003, p.7) 12
Table 2.2. Classification of strategies (1983 – 1991) (Olga, 2003, p.13) 15

3

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ ACRONYMS

SILL Strategy Inventory for Language Learning
IELTS International English Language Testing System
4

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
“Give a man a fish and he eats for a day. Teach him how to fish and he
eats for a lifetime” (Wenden, 1985, cited in Griffiths, 2003, p.1). In the context

strategies successfully, contributing to the language development. Nevertheless,
according to Larsen-Freeman (2001), the contribution of learners to the learning
process is still underestimated. This is the another reason, which triggers the
researcher to investigate more about what strategies learners employ and how
they do with those strategies to achieve success.
In fact, some learners acquire knowledge more quickly and efficiently
than others. This discrepancy among weaker learners and stronger learners in
second language acquisition stems from the cognitive, affective, and socio-
cultural factors to which the learners are imposed during the language learning
process (Nisbet et al., 2005). Among these factors, learning strategies stands out
as a subjective factor. They have become a means of achieving learners‟
autonomy in the process of language learning (Oxford, 1990; Benson and Voller,
1997 as cited in Rahimi et al., 2004). Valuable work has been and continues to
be done on learning strategies; however, existing research has mostly focused on
learners‟ strategies use in second language contexts (Rihami, 2004). In English
as a foreign language (ELT) contexts, research on language learning strategies
has mainly been conducted in South East Asia, especially China (Nisbet et.al,
6

2005; Feng 2010; Wu, 2010), but has not been widely studied in Vietnamese
contexts. This creates the motivation for the researcher to conduct a study on
language learning strategies by Vietnamese students in a Vietnamese context.
A great body of research confirms the relationship between learners‟
language learning strategies and their English proficiency (Park, 1997; Dreyer
and Oxford, 1996; Peacock and Ho, 2003; Nisbet et al., 2005; Adbullah and
Seyyed, 2012). However, there has been conflict in the scholars‟ opinion
regarding the learning strategies used by good language learners and bad
language ones. Some claims that good language learners use particular strategies
– which can hardly be found in bad language learner‟s cases – to assist them in
mastering new language skills (O‟Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzaranes, Russo

students at FELTE, ULIS, VNU?
2. To what extent does the reported frequency of language learning
strategy use vary between Basic Group and Proficient Group?
3. In what way do students’ language learning strategies correlate with
their English proficiency (if any)?
4. Which strategies do individual students consider most effective and
what factors may affect their choice of strategy use? 8

1.3. Scope of the study
As a broad area of language research, language learning strategy has been
identified as having relationship with many factors such as learners‟ language
proficiency, learning styles, learning outcome, learning motivation and other
learners‟ differences. Within the limitation of a thesis paper, this study
investigates the frequency of language learning strategy use by fourth-year
students at FELTE, ULIS, VNU. To move a further step, students are divided
into basic and proficient groups; therefore, patterns of strategy use by students at
different proficiency level are indicated. In addition, the possibility of a
correlation between students‟ proficiency level and their strategy use is checked.
Last but not least, the study elaborates on individual students‟ use of strategies to
cope with studying difficulties as well as students‟ opinion on what may affect
their option of language strategy use.
1.4. Organization of the study
The first chapter has demonstrated a brief background in theory and
practice concerning the topic of learners‟ language learning strategies. Also, it
has stated clear purposes and scope of this study including four research
questions. An overview of the rest of the paper is displayed below:
Chapter 2 – Literature review – provides the background of the study, including

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Learning strategies
2.1.1. Definition of learning strategies
There is obviously no general agreement in the field of second language
acquisition regarding the appropriate definitions of learning strategies. As stated
in O‟Malley et al. (1985), the language learning strategy field has been
characterized by „confusion‟ and „no consensus‟:
There is no consensus on what constitutes a learning strategy in second language
learning or how these differ from other types of learner activities. Learning,
teaching and communication strategies are often interlaced in discussions of language
learning and are often applied to the same behavior. Further, even within the group of
activities most often referred to as learning strategies, there is considerable confusion
about definitions of specific strategies and about the hierarchic relationship
among strategies.
(O‟Malley et al., 1985, p.22)
Oxford (1990, p.49) also acknowledges that there is no complete consensus on
what strategies are; how many strategies exist; how they should be defined
and classified; and whether it is likely to establish a scientifically validated
hierarchy of strategies. In other words, each researcher has developed his/ her
unique framework of defining and classifying learning strategies.
Most researchers define learning strategies as learners‟ actions and/ or
behaviors to facilitate the learning process. In reality, different terms namely
“techniques, devices, steps, operations, ways, methods, thoughts ” have been
employed; however, the researcher in this study condenses this variety into two
11

terms: “actions” and “behaviors”. The most general definition of learning
strategies is suggested by Rubin (1975) as “the techniques or devices which a
learner may use to acquire knowledge” (p.43). Apart from being used to ease the
knowledge acquisition, strategies are defined as a set of processes or steps for

“specific actions, behaviors, steps, techniques [or thoughts] – such as seeking out
conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult
language task – used by students to enhance their own learning” (p.63). Again in
Oxford (2001), learning strategies are characterized as:
“ operations employed by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval and use
of information; specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster,
more enjoyable, more self-directed, more efficient, and more transferable to new
situations.”
(Oxford, 2001, p.166)
In this study, the researcher adopt the definition given by Oxford (2001) that
learning strategies are mental operations used by learners to aid the acquisition,
storage, retrieval, and use of information; and specific actions taken by learners
to facilitate their learning process. This definition includes both internal
thoughts (under cognitive view) and external demonstrations (under pedagogical
view) in learners‟ process of implementing their language learning strategies in
order to facilitate their academic performance.
13

2.1.2. Classification of learning strategies
There have existed nearly as many models of learning strategy
classification as have the definitions of learning strategies. Some scholars may,
to some extent, share the same approach towards the classification of learning
strategies; however, each created his/ her unique hierarchy of learning strategies.
Throughout the history of researching learning strategies, various models of
categorizing learning strategies have been developed, as follows:
Classification of strategies (1975-1985)

Author
Strategies



5. Extension and revision of the second language system by
inferencing and monitoring (Nambiar 2009:134).
McLaughing (1978)
1. „acquisitional heuristics‟
e.g. overgeneralization, hypothesis-testing, and simplification

2. „operating procedures‟
e.g. rule isolation and learning and rote memorization
Bialystok (1978)
1. „Formal strategies‟ divided into: „formal practicing‟ and
„monitoring‟
2. „Functional strategies‟ divided into: „functional practicing‟ and
„inferencing‟
Dansereau (1978,
1985)
1. „Primary strategies‟
Identification, comprehension, retention, retrieval, and utilization

2. „Support strategies‟
e.g. concentration strategies, establishing appropriate learning
attitudes, and monitoring and revising primary strategies
(In-Sook 2002:102)
Rigney (1978)
1. System-assigned strategies
2. Student-assigned strategies
Detached
Embedded
Rubin & Thompson
(1983)

Considering strategies as techniques or devices for learners to acquire
knowledge, Rubin (1975) classifies learning strategies in terms of processes that
have both direct and indirect impact on language learning. Then, both Rubin
(1975) and Stern (1975) propose a list of 10 language learning strategies that
depicts the characteristics of successful language learners.
Basing on Stern‟s strategies, Naiman et al. (1978, cited in Olga, 2003, p.4)
propose five major strategies including factors concerning the significant
influence of the learning environment on learners‟ active involvement in learning
the second language (L2); the awareness of L2 as a linguistic system; and tool
for communication and interaction; the affective requirements of L2 learning;
and the need for L2 extension and revision.
Unlike this, Bialystok (1978, cited Olga, 2003, p.4) creates a framework
of two primary strategies, namely „formal strategies‟ and „functional strategies‟.
The former deal with conscious learning of accurate linguistic forms and the
latter are related to language use. Which strategies are employed depends on
learners‟ proficiency level, the knowledge needed to develop the task, the
complexity of the task, and learners‟ unique qualities.
16

Dansereau (1978, 1985, cited in Olga, 2003) divide learning strategies into
„primary strategies‟ (better handling the materials) and „support strategies‟
(improving internal psychological conditions and the learning environment to
facilitate the implementation of primary strategies). Meanwhile, Rigney (1978)
categorizes learning strategies into „system-assigned‟ and „student assigned‟.
The first refer to strategies provided by the instructional materials itself while the
second involve the strategies used by learners as their own choice. Rigney also
differentiates between „detached‟ and „embedded‟ learning strategies, which
exist in accordance with „system-assigned‟ and „student-assigned‟. The
„detached‟ ones are broadly utilized in different learning activities, whereas the
„embedded‟ ones are specifically associated with specific learning tasks and

production or reception).
2. Strategies for receiving performance.
3. Strategies for producing performance.
4. Strategies for organizing learning.
(1984:125)
Oxford (1985)
Based on Dansereau (1978) and Rubin (1981), she proposes:
1. Primary Strategies:
e.g. inferencing, mnemonics, summarizing, and practice.
2. Support Strategies:
e.g. attention enhancers, self-management, affective strategies,
planning, and cooperation.
(O‟Malley and Chamot 1990:103)
O‟Malley (1985)
1. Metacognitive strategies
e.g. selective attention, planning, monitoring, and evaluation.
2. Cognitive strategies
e.g. repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note-taking,
deducing, recombination, imagery, auditory representation,
deduction, keyword method, contextualization, elaboration,
transfer, and inferencing.
3. Socio-affective
e.g. cooperation, asking for clarification.
(Hismanoglu 2000; O‟Malley and Chamot 1990)
Weinstein and
Mayer (1986)
1. Basic rehearsal strategies
2. Complex rehearsal strategies
18


2. Indirect language learning strategies
 Metacognitive strategies: Centering your learning, arranging
and planning your learning, evaluating your learning.
 Affective strategies: Lowering your anxiety, encouraging
yourself, taking your emotional temperature.
 Social strategies: Asking questions, cooperating with others,
empathizing with others.
Wenden and
Rubin
(1987) and
Wenden
(1991)
1. Cognitive strategies‟ which are actions taken by learners to process
linguistic and sociolinguistic data.

2. Self-management strategies by which learners plan, monitor and
evaluate their learning process.
Table 2.2. Classification of strategies (1983 – 1991) (Olga, 2003, p.13)
Carver (1984) emphasizes learning reception and learning performance,
and proposes four types of learning strategies, that is, 1. Strategies for coping
19

with TL rules, 2. Strategies for receiving performance, 3. Strategies for
producing performance, and 4. Strategies for organizing learning. Similar to
Dansereau (1987), Oxford (1985) divides learning strategies into Primary
strategies and Support strategies. On the other hand, O‟Malley et al. (1985)
suggested a categorization including „Metacognitive strategies‟ which assist
learners in regulating and self-evaluating their learning process, „Cognitive
strategies‟ which directly concerns manipulating information to enhance
learning, and „Socio-affective strategies‟ which help learners to cooperate and

Indirect Strategies
Create Opportunities for Practice
Production Tricks

Indirect Social Strategies
Indirect Metacognitive Strategies
Direct Memory Strategies
Direct Compensation Strategies
Direct Cognitive Strategies
Direct Cognitive Strategies

Indirect Social Strategies
Direct Comprehension Strategies
Note. This comparison is not always clear-cut. For example, Rubin‟s direct
guessing/ inductive inferencing and indirect production tricks could be classified
as direct cognitive strategies and indirect compensation strategies in Oxford,
respectively (Rubin, 1981; Oxford, 1990)
Table 2.3. A Comparison of Rubin’s and Oxford’s Strategy Classification
Systems (cited in Hsiao & Oxford, 2002, p.170)
To conclude, the taxonomy given by Oxford (1990) was adopted in this
study because it is „perhaps the most comprehensive classification of learning
strategies to date” (Codina, 1988, cited in Olga 2003, p.23). In this taxonomy,
learning strategies are classified into two main group: „Direct strategies‟
(memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies) which
“involve direct learning and use of the subject matter” (Oxford, 1990, p.12) and
“require mental processing of the language” (Oxford ,1990, p.37), and „Indirect
strategies‟ ( metacognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies)
which “support and manage language learning without (in many instances)
directly involving the target language” (Oxford ,1990, p.135).
21