Vietnam National University, Hanoi
University of Languages and International Studies
Faculty of Post-graduate Studies

LÝ THỊ THANH MAI
The effects of games on helping high school
English learners retain word meaning
(HIỆU QUẢ CỦA TRÒ CHƠI TRONG VIỆC GIÚP HỌC SINH
THPT GHI NHỚ NGHĨA TỪ VỰNG) M.A. Minor Programme Thesis
Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 601410
Supervisor: Hà Cẩm Tâm (Ph.D)
Hanoi, 2010

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Table of Content

2.1.1. What do learners need to know about word learning?
5
2.1.2.1. Word meaning
5
2.1.2.2. Word form
7
2.1.2.3. Stages in word learning
8
2.1.3. Factors affecting vocabulary retention
8
2.1.3.1. Depth of processing
9
2.1.3.2. Memory
10
2.1.3.3. Learning styles
11
2.1.3.4. Motivation
13
2.1.3.5. Attitude
14
2.2. Teaching and learning vocabulary through games
15
2.2.1. Games for language teaching and learning
15

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2.2.1.1. Definition of games
15
2.2.1.2. Advantages of games
16

2.3.1.2. The progress tests
28
2.3.1.3. The final test
30
2.3.2. Discussion and findings
31
Part C: Conclusion
35
1. Major findings
35
2. Implications
36
3. Limitations and recommendations for further studies
37
References
38
Appendices
I
Appendix 1: Tests
I
Appendix 2: Games applied in the experimental process
IX
Appendix 3: Scores
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Part A: Introduction
Part A – Introduction- provides the background to the study and statement of the
problem, the aims, the research question, the scope of the study as well as the research

approach, that is at the time for vocabulary, a vast amount of teaching time is consumed by
explanation and definition, classroom blackboards are often littered with masses of new
lexical items, and students compile page upon page of word-lists that they have few
opportunities to practice. This results in students‟ short-term memory of new vocabulary
items. They will very quickly forget the new words‟ meaning and use. This also makes
students get bored with learning vocabulary.
So what should a teacher do if their students get bored? Nation (2001) suggests
some interesting ways to help learners remember previously met words such as getting
learners to do graded reading or listening stories; speaking and writing activities based on
written input that contains the words; taking part in activities that involved testing
vocabulary such as Word and Picture Matching, Same or Difference, etc. Gairn & Redman
(1986) recommends classroom activities such as using visual aids, speaking activities (role
play, narrative, etc.), games, questionnaires and problem solving and so on. Whereas,
Watcin-Jones (1993) proposes that teachers use games and activities in revising words
because with games learning seems to become more active, the students get more involved
and retention also improves enormously.
Therefore, it can be realized that the common tendency of these methodology
writers is that teachers should be more active in using classroom activities to help students
recycle lexical items. One of the most recommended activities is games. According to
them, games are highly motivating, competitive and fun. They also bring a relaxed
atmosphere and create more opportunities for students to practice and revise vocabulary.
With games, students will enjoy themselves, be stimulated and get involved in vocabulary
learning. As a result, they can learn new lexical items faster and remember better. With so
many advantages, games seem to be an effective way in teaching and learning a foreign
language in general and vocabulary in specific.
For those reasons, I have decided to choose the topic:
“The effects of games on helping high school English learners retain word meaning”
for my minor thesis with the hope that it might be of some help for teachers and students in
teaching and learning vocabulary.
2. Aims of the study

meaning. Collected scores were then processed and analyzed.
6. organization of the study
This minor thesis is composed of three parts as follow:
Part A - Introduction: presenting rationale, aims, research question as well as
scope of the study, methodology and design of the study.

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Part B - Development: consisting of two chapters. Chapter 1 is for literature
review, which provides the theoretical background of the study. Chapter 2 is for the study
which represents the research question, describes the design of the study then presents the
data analysis and discussion.
Part C - Conclusion: summarizing the major findings of the experiment, voicing
some implications for language teachers in teaching vocabulary and suggesting some
recommendations for further studies.


o Conceptual meaning is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic
communication and it has a complex and sophisticated organization.

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E.g. Woman = + HUMAN, - MALE, + ADULT as distinct from Boy which can be
defined as + HUMAN, + MALE, - ADULT
o Referential meaning is the ability to refer to objects or things (often called
referent).
E.g. Can you give me a book? Vs. I’ve bought a book this afternoon.
Connotation: includes stylistic, affective, evaluative, and intensifying. It is the
pragmatic communicative value of the words acquired by virtue of where, when, how, by
whom, for what purpose and in what context it is or may be used. This kind of meaning is
rather unstable: that is they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and
the experience of the individual.
Structural/associative meaning: includes reflected meaning, collocative meaning,
associative meaning, and thematic meaning. It is the meaning of a word acquire by virtue
of its membership in a system or a set.
o Reflected meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual
meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.
E.g. The 40
th
President of the US and the Great Communicator both refer to Ronald
Reagan
o Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the
meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. E.g. pretty
girl/boy/woman/flower but handsome boy/man/car/airliner.
o Associative meaning is also the meaning which arises because of its association
with other meanings. E.g. good vs. bad; buy vs. sell, hard vs. soft.
o Thematic meaning is the kind of meaning which is communicated by the way in
which a speaker or writer organizes the message in terms of ordering, focus, and

and emotional associations which, for an English native speaker, would not be true of
“single woman”. These associations may include old, isolated, on the shelf, a sad figure,
etc.
Wallace (1983) defined that affective meaning is determined by cultural structure,
the pattern of perception, thinking or feeling. Affective meaning reflects “people
perceiving, thinking, or feeling things together in space and/or time”.
2.1.2.2. Word form
Gairns & Redman (1986) emphasize that knowing word form is as essential as
knowing word meaning. Knowing word form includes word grammar, pronunciation
(stress, sound, spelling) as well as word building (affixation, compounding and
conversion).

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Whereas, Nation (1990) divides the form of word into two types: the spoken form
and the written form.
2.1.2.3. Stages in word learning
There is no doubt that learning vocabulary is a complex process, consisting of a
number of different stages. However, different researchers have different ideas about the
stages in this process. One suggested by Hatch & Brown (1995:383) includes five stages:
1. having sources for encountering new words
2. getting a clear image of words, both visual and auditory
3. learning the meaning of words
4. making strong memory connections between form and meaning of words
5. using words
Meanwhile, Waring (2002) states that there are two major stages in word learning.
The first stage is matching the word's spelling and pronunciation (its form) with its
meaning. When this relationship is acquired, the second stage involves the deeper aspects
of word knowledge. These may include the words it goes with and does not go with, the
restrictions on its use, whether it is formal or informal, whether it is spoken or written, its
similarity to other words, its shades of meaning, whether it is frequent or not, and so on.

on the memory. In other words stronger traces conduct information to the long-term
memory and consequently lead to better levels of retention and recall.
Schmitt & Mc Cathy (1997) express that the deeper the mental processing learners
engage in when learning a new lexical item, the more likely they are to remember it. By
depth processing, we mean that the learners work out the meaning of the item by referring
to their existing knowledge or they work on personalizing the meaning.
According to Craik & Lockhart (1972), the “level of processing” theory of learning
suggested that a very important factor in learning is the quality of mental activity in the
brain of the learner at the moment the learning occurs. If this activity is at a deep and
thoughtful level the learning will remain for long time. If this activity is shallow and
mechanical, little learning will occur. (cited in Nation, 1994)
Schmitt (1997: 201) agrees with the depth of processing hypothesis in the sense
that deeper levels of processing will occasion more effective learning. Yet he adds as well
“relatively shallow processing strategies can be effective too”. Schmitt states that,
according to Nation‟s (1982) research, learners managed to learn a great deal of vocabulary
through word lists. Moreover, he says that rote repetition can also be effective if learners
are used to this approach. Finally, he concludes, citing Cohen and Aphek (1981) that
shallower tasks may be more adequate for beginners whereas deeper tasks would be more
beneficial to intermediate and advanced learners. Thus, it can be argued that a deeper

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processing can be relevant in the case of intermediate and advanced learners studying more
complex words, i.e., words that will demand more from learners because they are a part of
the lexicon that is totally unfamiliar to the learners.
2.1.3.2. Memory
Many researchers points that students‟ memory is vital in process of learning. A
range of vocabulary and new structures remembered by learners is very important and the
degree in which they really remember them can cause differences between learners.
As stated by Gairns & Redman (1986), understanding how we store information in
the memory and why certain chunks of it seem to “stick” while others slip away is a matter

What is more, Gairns & Redman (1986) add that the distinction between short-term
retention and long-term retention is not always clear-cut. Information entering short-term
memory may pass quite effortlessly into long-term memory, and some learners may find
repetition a very effective way of transferring information into long-term memory.
Hence, teachers should bear in mind that long-term memory needs creating when
learners study language in general and vocabulary in specific. To do so, teachers have to
consider ways to help students improve their memory. They need to look at the link
between students‟ interest and memory and also the approaches to memory improvement.
According to Devine (1989), students put into long-term memory what tend to interest
them and/or relates to their own lives. Therefore, teachers should select materials carefully,
make materials interesting, offer effective ways such as role-playing, dramatics, games,
etc. to help students learn and retain vocabulary.
2.1.3.3. Learning styles
Many people recognize that each person prefers different learning styles and
techniques. Learning styles group common ways that people learn. Everyone has a mix of
learning styles. Some people may find that they have a dominant style of learning, with far
less use of the other styles. Others may find that they use different styles in different
circumstances. There is no right mix. Nor are your styles fixed. You can develop ability in
less dominant styles, as well as further develop styles that you already use well.
Ellis (1985) describes a learning style as the more or less consistent way in which a
person perceives, conceptualizes, organizes and recalls information.
This approach to learning styles emphasizes the fact that students preferentially
take in and process information in different ways: by seeing and hearing, reflecting and
acting, reasoning logically and intuitively, analyzing and visualizing, etc. Teachers
therefore need to vary their methods because when mismatches exist between learning

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styles of most students in a class and the teaching styles of the teachers, students may
become bored and inattentive, do poorly on tests as well as get discouraged about learning.
A version copyrighted by Miller (2000) shows that there are 4 learning styles as

information, or the way they previously repeated it out loud. They learn best when
interacting with others in a listening/speaking exchange.
From the above viewpoints, it can be seen that different students prefer different
styles of learning. To help them focus on the lessons, teacher should strive for a balance of
instructional methods (as opposed to trying to teach each student exclusively according to
his/her preference). If the balance is achieved, all students will be taught partly in a manner
they prefer, which leads to an increased comfort level and willingness to learn.
2.1.3.4. Motivation
In the classroom, as in most areas of life, motivation is essential for a person to
succeed. It is important for a teacher to have some understanding of what motivation is and
how it will affect each and every student and their learning progress. As Rogers writes,
„motivation… is as much a matter of concern for the teacher as it is for the learner; it
depends as much on the attitudes of the teacher as on the attitudes of the students‟ (Rogers
1996: 66). In an attempt to define motivation, Brown (1996) points out that a cognitive
view of motivation includes factors such as the need for exploration, activity, stimulation,
new knowledge, and ego enhancement. Williams & Burden suggest that motivation is a
„state of cognitive arousal‟ which provokes a „decision to act‟ as a result of which there is
„sustained intellectual and/or physical effort‟ so that the person can achieve some
previously set goal‟ (Williams and Burden 1997: 120). They go on to point out that the
strength of that motivation will depend on how much value the individual places on the
outcome he or she wishes to achieve. Motivation is divided into two areas „extrinsic‟ and
„intrinsic‟ and has been described by Harmer in the following way.
Extrinsic motivation is caused by any number of outside factors, for example, the
need to pass an exam, the hope of financial reward, or the possibility of future travel.
Intrinsic motivation, by contrast, comes from within the individual. Thus a person might
be motivated by the enjoyment of the learning process itself or by a desire to make
themselves feel better. Most researchers and methodologists have come to the view that
intrinsic motivation is especially important for encouraging success. Even where the
original reason for taking up a language course, for example, is extrinsic, the chances of
success will be greatly enhanced if the student comes to love the learning process. (Harmer

thing, or event - this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be conflicted
or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both positive
and negative attitudes toward the item in question. (From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia)

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As a result, attitude takes a very important role in language acquisition because as
Krashen (1985) states, it is one of the factors that encourage intake. Students‟ attitude can
be found in their feeling and belief about language, about the classroom, about the
teachers, course books, or the methods, etc. Selinger (1977) says that the student who feels
at ease in the classroom and likes the teacher may seek out intake by volunteering (he may
be a “high input generator”) (cited in Krashen, 1985). Another opinion which comes from
Brown (1994) expresses that language learners benefit from positive attitudes while
negative attitudes may lead to decrease motivation and thus to unsuccessful attainment of
proficiency.
So, it cannot be denied that understanding factors affecting vocabulary retention
might help teachers create more effective ways to teach vocabulary.
2.2. Teaching and learning vocabulary through games
2.2.1. Games for language teaching and learning
Some teachers think that language games are a waste of time and prefer not to use
them in classroom since games sometimes have been considered only for its one element,
that is fun. In fact, games can provide EFL and ESL students more than that. They have
been used to promote students‟ language proficiency in variety of aspects: grammar,
vocabulary, writing, speaking, etc. When using games in the classroom, it is beneficial for
teachers to have a complete understanding of the definitions of games, the advantages of
games, and the ability to capture students' attention. Teacher should also lower students'
stress; give students the chance for real communication and assess how to use games
appropriately in the classroom.
2.2.1.1. Definition of games
Language games are not activities mainly aimed to break the ice between students

The main reason why games are considered effective learning aids is that "they
spur motivation and students get very absorbed in the competitive aspects of the games;
moreover, they try harder at games than in other courses" (Avedon, 1971). Naturally when
playing games, students are trying to win or to beat other teams for themselves or on the
behalf of their team. They are so competitive while playing because they want to have a
turn to play, to score points and to win. In the class, students will definitely participate in
the activities. Therefore, it is possible for a teacher to introduce students to new ideas,
grammar, knowledge and so on. As in the dictation game, students are so competitive that
they want to finish first and win. It can be clearly seen that games can capture students'

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attention and participation. They can motivate students to want to learn more. Moreover,
they can transform a boring class into a challenging one.
Another reason why games are often used in language classes is that they lower
students' stress in the classroom. In conventional classrooms, there is a lot of stress put on
students trying to master the target language. Schultz (1988) said that
" Stress is a major hindrance in language learning process. This process [Learning
language in traditional way ] is by its nature time consuming and stress provoking
raise the stress level to a point at which it interferes with student attention and efficiency
and undermines motivation. one method has been developed to make students forget
that they are in class relax students by engaging them in stress-reducing task (games)."
There is a high level of stress in the classroom because students have to face
unfamiliar or unknown grammatical structures, words, texts and so forth. Therefore,
students often feel uncomfortable and insecure in class, which inevitably affects their
ability to learn. As a result, games can help lower their anxiety, make them feel
comfortable, and want to learn more. It is believed that when students play games, they
relax and have fun. Since students know that they are playing games and want to
communicate efficiently t hey do not worry about making mistakes and do not try to
correct themselves in every single sentence. When students are free from worry and stress,
they can improve their fluency and natural speaking styles.

4. Games can give “hidden” practice of specific language points without students
being aware of this.
5. Games encourage students‟ participation and can remove the inhibitions of
those who feel intimidated by formal classroom situations.
6. Games can change the role of the teacher from that of a formal instructor to that
of manager or organizer of activities that students enjoy participating in. this
can be useful in reducing teacher-student distance or conflict.
7. Games can increase student-student communication, and so reduce the
domination of the classroom by the teacher.
8. Games can act as a testing mechanism, in the sense that they will expose areas
of weakness and the need for remedial work.
Lee (1995) states several advantages when games are used in the classroom,
including “a welcome break from the usual routine of the language class”, “motivating and
challenging”, “effort of learning”, and “language practice in various skills”.
With so many advantages games are of course an effective tool in language classrooms.
The questions here are that which games to use and when to use games. The answers to
these questions will be presented in the next sections.

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2.2.1.3. Which games to use?
The benefit of using games in language teaching is absolutely clear. Yet not all
kinds of games can be applied. So what kinds of games will be used ? This requires careful
considerations from language researchers and teachers. Also teachers need to look deep
into their class situations as well as their students‟ background knowledge and what items
will be taught, too. Shelley Vernon says that, “When you are looking for games to use in
your classroom, don‟t just pick something to be a “time-filler” which does not have a
definite linguistic outcome” because “These games may entertain the students, but when
you don‟t have much time with them each day as it is, you want your games to do double
duty to get the most out of the time you spend playing games”. She also suggests that
teachers of English “should have a clear linguistics outcome for each game”.

never have a game played for so long that it begins to bore the participants. Similarly,
games shouldn‟t be played to often since this will cause it to lose its novelty.
Undoubtedly, games are very effective in language teaching and learning with a lot of
advantages such as giving fun, reinforcing motivation, improving proficiency and
corporation, etc. The difficult task for teachers is how to choose the suitable type of game,
the appropriate time to play it as well as the opportunity of its use.
2.2.2. Word games
From the viewpoint of Wright, Betteridge & Buckley (1983), word games are
language games whose focus of attention is initially on words. According to them, word
games are classified into some groups in accordance with the language in focus.
 Spelling as in a game called Dash it and hang it. In this kind of game students are
required to combine letter to spell a mystery word.
 Meaning as in Definition or The odd man out. Here students are required to ask for
and give definition of words as well as make, compare or discuss word definition.
They also have to group words according to their categories and drop out the words
that do not belong to a certain categories.
 Words for sentence making as in A-A, B-B or Make a sentence. The students have
to make sentences including selected vocabulary items.
 Words as inferred from context as in Missing words. The students are asked to
find the missing words for his/her text by reading out loud, comparing, checking
and discussing with the partner.
Meanwhile, another author, Hadfield (1998), when referring to word games pays
more attention to reinforcing vocabulary. In his opinion, to retain a word in one‟s memory
after its presentation, learners should go through three distinction process: fixing the

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meaning of the word in their mind, making the word their own by personalizing it so that it
takes on a color and a character for them and becomes part of their individual word store,
and then using it creatively in a context for themselves. Therefore, he divides games in
accordance with these three process: memorization games, personalizing games, and

This chapter deals with the design of the study as well as the data analysis and
discussion. First, the research question is raised again. Then participants, data collection
instrument and procedures, teaching procedures and the analytical framework are described
in details. Finally, the data are analyzed and discussed to draw out some findings of the
study.
2.1. Research question
The research question has clearly been presented in part A already. However, for
the sake of highlighting the selected research method, the research question is presented
here again.
Are word games more effective than practice exercises in helping high school English
learners retain word meaning?
2.2. Design of the study
2.2.1. Participants
In the study, 88 students all of whom were non-major English students from 2
classes: 11A2 and 11A3 were employed as the participants of the experiment process. Each
class consisted of 44 students. All of the students were majored in natural sciences. They
had been learning English since they were at grade 3. As a matter of fact, because the
students all lived in the countryside with just few chances to study English outside the
class; moreover, most of them were not really motivated in learning English and they
didn‟t intend to take English as one of the subject in their entrance exam, their English
knowledge was just at the average level, some were even bad at English. Based on their
grades of their final exam in the preceding semester, the researcher found out that they
were generally homogeneous in learning English. The two classes studied the same
textbook of English 11 with four periods a week in which three periods were for studying
the lessons in the textbook and a supplementary one for revising what they had learnt in the
week. As can be seen the textbook is theme-based, including 16 units and 6 tests yourself
for students to check their own knowledge. Each unit corresponds with a topic and consists
of 5 parts (Reading, Speaking, Listening, Writing, and Language Focus). There is no
separate part for Vocabulary. Vocabulary is indirectly taught and learnt (i.e., learning