MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY
------------------------------------------

TRAN THI MINH TRI

LEARNER AUTONOMY AS PERCEIVED BY TEACHERS AND
STUDENTS AT NGUYEN VAN LINH HIGH SCHOOL

Major: TEACHING ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES
Major code: 60 14 01 11

MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL

Supervisor: Dr. NGUYEN DINH THU

HO CHI MINH City, 2016


STATEMENT OF THE AUTHORSHIP

I certify that this thesis, entitled “Learner Autonomy as Perceived by Teachers and
Students at Nguyen Van Linh High School”, is my own work.
Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains no material published
elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been
awarded another degree or diploma.
No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the
thesis.
This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other
tertiary institution.
Ho Chi Minh City, September, 2016

The context of Vietnamese high schools, however, may hinder its development. The present study
aims to investigate what learner autonomy is perceived by 133 grade twelve students and five
English teachers at Nguyen Van Linh high school. In this research, questionnaires for students and
teachers are triangulated by interviews with 9 learners randomly invited and all of the teachers. The
findings suggest that either the students or their English teachers perceive that teachers should take
the most of the responsibilities in the classroom although they see that learners have some abilities
to decide many of the activities relating to their learning. Besides, the activities reported by these
two groups of participants show that the students conducted little autonomous learning in their last
semester. Understanding learner autonomy perception from the perspectives of learners and
teachers at high school contexts may assist EFL instructors in this context to achieve the ultimate
goal in teaching a foreign language.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF THE AUTHORSHIP.................................................................................. i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................ viii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................1
1. 1 Rationale of the study ............................................................................................................1
1. 2 Statement of the problem .......................................................................................................3
1. 3 Purposes of the study .............................................................................................................4
1. 4 Research questions .................................................................................................................4
1. 5 Significance of the study........................................................................................................5
1. 6 Limitations of the study .........................................................................................................6
1. 7 Overview of the chapters .......................................................................................................7

5. 2 Twelfth graders’ English teachers at Nguyen Van Linh high school’s perceptions about
their learners’ autonomy in terms of responsibilities, abilities and activities .....................57
5. 3 Comparisons on learner autonomy perceived by twelfth graders and their English
teachers at Nguyen Van Linh high school. ..........................................................................60
CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................64
6.1 Conclusions. ..........................................................................................................................64
6. 2 Pedagogical implications ..................................................................................................66
6. 3 Recommendations. ...............................................................................................................67
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................................69

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APPENDICES ...........................................................................................................................81
APPENDIX 1a: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
(ENGLISH VERSION) ...................................................................................81
APPENDIX 1b: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
(VIETNAMESE VERSION) ...........................................................................84
APPENDIX 2a: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS
(ENGLISH VERSION) ...................................................................................87
APPENDIX 2b: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS
(VIETNAMESE VERSION) ...........................................................................90
APPENDIX 3a: INTERVIEW FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
(ENGLISH VERSION) ...................................................................................92
APPENDIX 3b: INTERVIEW FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
(VIETNAMESE VERSION) ...........................................................................93
APPENDIX 4a: INTERVIEW FOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS
(ENGLISH VERSION) ...................................................................................94
APPENDIX 4b: INTERVIEW FOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS
(VIETNAMESE VERSION) ...........................................................................95


Bachelor of Arts

CRAPEL:

Centre de Reserches et d’Applications en Langues

EFL:

English as a Foreign Language

ESL:

English as a Second Language

ILTP:

Integrated Learner Training Programme

ITC:

Information and Communication Technologies

LA:

Language Acquisition

LMS:

Learning Management System

and more papers tend to explore issues related to learner autonomy worthwhile.
Holec (1981) was the pioneer in the field of learner autonomy. His work has been seen
as putting the starting point with the definition of leaner autonomy “the ability to take charge of
one’s own learning” (p.3). In his view, this “ability” is not inborn but acquired through a learning
process. Also, it should not be considered as a complete separation from teachers and other
students. In other words, learner autonomy is a term used for a cooperative learning environment
rather than an isolated learning, a learning process rather than an innate skill. Due to the

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influential attribute, more researchers (Cotterall 1995; Benson and Huang 2008, Zhe 2009; Joshi
2011) have been attracted to different aspects of this issue from theories to practices.
To raise the importance of language learner autonomy, Ellis and Sinclair published a
book in 1989, which aims to help learners take the responsibility for their own learning due to
the following reasons. Firstly, they emphasize that when learners take control of their own
learning, their learning will be more effective due to the fact that they learn what they are ready
to learn. Secondly, they tend to conduct more learning outside the classroom, which helps
improve their language learning. Finally, learners can explore a wide range of learning strategies
to elect the most appropriate one for themselves that assists to organize and monitor their
learning effectively.
Among a great number of other research workers, Little (2007) emphasizes the
fundamental role of learner autonomy when stating that it can “move to the central of language
teaching theory and practice” (p.14). In his view, the growth of learner autonomy and the
development of language proficiency are closely connected. His idea has been supported by
many practical research papers. Dafei’s (2007) investigation of 129 non-English majors at a
teacher college in China showed the significant and positive connection between learner
autonomy and language proficiency. The analysis of the results from the questionnaires for
learner autonomy and the score of the participants indicated that when students were not
significantly different in their proficiency, their learner autonomy was not statistically different.

and preferences is teaching them the way to learn independently. He agrees with Little (1991)
that when students are autonomous in their learning, they will feel what they are learning is
connected to those in their life. Besides, the students’ motivation is enhanced, which encourage
them to take advantage of every opportunity in non-native environment to communicate the
target language.
1.2 Statement of the problem
In the context of Vietnamese high schools, there are numerous constraints for teachers
to increase proficiency levels of their students (Duong, 2006). In her study, Duong (2006)
identifies the model of the classrooms in Vietnam with certain common characteristics. The first

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characteristic is the classroom with unmovable chairs on which students sit still. Then, the
students in those rooms try to grasp all things that the teachers convey to reproduce most
correctly in the exams. The teachers then make their all best to “pour” the knowledge into the
students’ mind, which is, in her words, something like a so-called full-pitcher and a so-called
empty glass.
These ideas were supported by Pham (2007) when the teachers participating in his study
admitted that the constraints in their teaching at secondary schools are large class size and
students’ lack of motivation to apply English. Especially, these teachers emphasized that the
matter came from the national examination. They stated that they wanted their students to use
English well but the pressure of instructing their students to pass the graduation exam and
university entrance exam seemed more powerful.
Nowadays, following the trend of the world which emphasizes the role of the learners,
the Prime minister issued the decision No. 711/QD-TTg in 2012, approving the Vietnamese
education development strategies for the period of 2011 – 2020 (Vietnamese Prime Minister,
2012). This document indicates that to achieve the strategic objectives, eight solutions need to
be conducted. Among these solutions, one emphasizes the requirement to renovation in teaching
contents and methods, exams, tests and education quality assessment with the aim of enhancing

1.4 Research questions
In line with the above purposes, the research paper tries to find out the answers to the
questions:
1. What are grade 12 students at Nguyen Van Linh high school’s perceptions about learner
autonomy?
2. What are the English teachers at Nguyen Van Linh high school’s perceptions about their
learners’ autonomy?

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3. Are there any differences between learner autonomy perceptions between learners and
teachers at Nguyen Van Linh high school?
1.5 Significance of the study
The study aims to investigate the perceptions of students and teacher on learner
autonomy which is considered as a desired goal in language teaching and learning. Then it
results will be worthy because of the following reasons. First and foremost, it will provide the
English teachers at Nguyen Van Linh high school, an insight into their learners’ autonomy.
Thanks to that, they can understand what students perceive about their roles, how good they
perceive about their capacity and what they actually carry out in their study. This also provides
information about the levels and the readiness for autonomous learning also. Besides, rather
than the English teachers, other teachers from different departments of the school can use the
results in this study to make an implication for their teaching because the first part in the
questionnaire focus on the role of teachers and learners in the learning process. Furthermore,
the study investigates the perceptions of English teachers on learner autonomy and the
differences between the two subjects-learners and teachers, which may help the management
board to determine the suitable way to develop curriculum fostering autonomous learning. Last
but not least, the survey may raise the awareness of teachers and students at Nguyen Van Linh
high school on autonomous learning. This will bring some effects to their study results,
especially to the participants in the study whose are preparing for the graduation exam.


CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
To begin the chapter, general historical backgrounds of learner autonomy are
presented. Next, several definitions are reviewed in an attempt to establish a working definition
of learner autonomy for this study. It then summarizes empirical studies relating to learner
autonomy in Asian contexts. Finally, it continues to present autonomous learning research in
Vietnam.
2.1 Historical background
Originally, the term “autonomy” is derived from a combination of ancient Greek words
autos meaning “self,” and nomos, meaning “rule”. Hence, autonomy is considered in terms of
philosophy as the state of self – governing or self-directing. Adapting this term into the field of
second language education somehow keeps its original meanings.
The development of learner autonomy from its first appearance in language learning and
teaching literature, is clearly reviewed by Benson (2013). In his book, Benson explains that the
term “learner autonomy” was first generated to researchers and educators in language teaching
through the modern language project of The Council of Europe, which was founded in 1971.
Among the outcomes of the project, the Centre de Reserches et d’Applications en Langues
(CRAPEL), led by Yves Châlon, significantly contributed to the field of language learning by
introducing the concept of learner autonomy. Therefore, Yves Châlon has been considered as
the father of autonomy. After the death of this leader in 1972, the leadership of project was
assumed by Henri Holec. His report to the project in 1981 then provided influential guides in
the field of autonomous learning (Benson, 2013).
According to Benson (2013), one of the earliest and most popular ideas coping with
learner autonomy is self-access centers. In line with Benson (2013), Gardner and Miller (1999)
claim that self-access may be the most favored approach to enhance learner autonomy and to
shift learner’s dependence on their teacher to their autonomy. The first self-access centers at

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own needs and find their own methods to fulfill them. Researchers at CRAPEL state that
individualization also relates to programmed individualized learning, which allows learners to
make decisions and work on their own ways but they have to follow their teacher’s materials.
This mode of instructions, however, is assumed to reduce the chance to develop learner
autonomy. These early ideas emphasize the role of individual learners and isolate learners from
their teacher and their friends.
On the other hand, the recent trend has taken the importance of social factors into
considerations (Benson, 2001). Learners only develop themselves when they interact with other
learners or with their teacher (Little, 1999). Little also takes the example of the infants with their
mother to demonstrate the language development. He asserts that social interaction and
communication have strong relationship. And the strong tool for people to communicate is
language. This idea quite correlates with those from the Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky. In
Vygotsky’s (1978) constructivist theory of language acquisition, children develop their metacognition like planning, monitoring or evaluating thanks to social interaction via the means of
language. Wang (2014) suggests that a strong relationship between constructivism learning
theory and learner autonomy. According to Wang, the latter depends on and fully reflects the
former. Learners come to class not to receive knowledge from the teacher but they come to learn
how to acquire them thanks to the aid of learning materials, the teacher or their partners.
Reinders (2010) also indicates that the common things between constructivism learning theory
and learner autonomy are their central roles of learners to construct, reorganize and share the
knowledge. In the context of formal learning, classrooms are recognized as “social context”,
where learners can cooperate with others to make decisions together and to enhance their learner
autonomy (Kohonence, 1992 cited in Benson, 2013). Therefore, learner autonomy should be
promoted by working with the teacher and other learners. The term “interdependence” is
understood in this sense. Benson (2013) refuses to use the term “independence” because it just
shows the opposite meaning of the traditional teaching approach, which much relies on the
teacher for almost everything but it cannot show the usefulness of collaboration towards learner
autonomy in classroom context.

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her actions. This capacity depends on two main components: ability and willingness” (p. 428).
Later, he distinguishes the capacity between reactive and proactive levels. In terms of reactive
level, learners can “organize their resources autonomously in order to reach their goal” under
clear instructions from teachers (Littlewood 1999, p. 75). At proactive level, students are able
to create their own instructions and follow them to obtain their purposes. Therefore, learner
autonomy should be examined in terms of attitudes and behavior.
Little (1999) also agree that learner autonomy basically refers to the capacity for
independent learning but the ability for autonomous skills are not “inborn”, but are taught or
trained by teachers (Holec 1985, 1987 cited in Benson, 1996). In his concept, he considers the
capacity for critical reflection on learners’ own learning leading to awareness one of the most
important elements. His definition takes “the nature of the cognitive capabilities underlying
effective self-management of learning” into consideration (Benson, 2001, p. 49). Learner
autonomy can be interpreted as not only the ability to be responsible for one’s own learning,
but also the capacity for effectively self-managing the learning by controlling psychological
factors that affect their learning. In order to become autonomous, students must obtain cognitive
and meta-cognitive skills for making decisions on their learning process effectively.
In general, there are a number of dimensions in defining learner autonomy but it “is
interpreted differently by different cultures and nations” (Ivanovska, 2015, p. 355). In the local
context as Vietnamese education, Phan (2015) analyzes and synthesizes different definitions
from the experts in the field to construct a concept of learner autonomy suited to this context.
From her exploration, she concludes that learner autonomy should consist of two components.
The first component is learners’ attitude, which can be understood as the awareness of
responsibility in the learning process and willingness to communicate. It indicates the roles
perceived by the learners, themselves, in their own learning process. They must see themselves
have an active role, so they are willing to take some responsibilities for making some important
decisions in their learning such as learning objectives, kinds of materials, activities and so on.
The second component of Phan’s definition relates to the learners’ ability to conduct
autonomous learning activities. She clarifies that this ability consists of four elements - goal

figures who are responsible for looking after and taking control over the classroom and the

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whole learning process as well (Holec, 1987). Therefore, students in this region tend to be
passive and dependent on their teachers, rather than actively enroll in their own learning process
to make their own decisions. This trait of Asian educational systems may hinder the
development of leaner autonomy in Asian cultures (Chan, 2003; Lamb, 2004).
In spite of such stereotype on the development of learn autonomy in Asian countries, it
is, necessary to consider numerous studies on learner autonomy conducted around Asia such as
Japan, Thailand, Malaysia or China. In an attempt to prove that learner autonomy is also suitable
to different cultures, including East Asia, Littlewood (1999) carried out a cross-cultural study
on students’ attitudes towards English learning. In the study, he investigated students in eight
East Asian countries and three European countries about three cultural sources influencing
students’ learning approaches. They were the collectivism, high distance power and types of
achievement motivation in East Asia. Data from his study suggest that these students show their
strong wish to actively engage in exploring knowledge. Also, they indicated positive attitudes
towards sharing goals in group work activities.
With reference to learner autonomy in Japanese educational context, Usuki (2001)
indicated the positive attitudes towards their roles in the learning process. Data from interviews
and journals written by the first year English majored students at a Japanese private university
suggested that students were aware of their roles as active and autonomous learners and they
expressed their wish to have opportunities interacting with others in their classroom learning.
However, their awareness seemed to be different from their actual behaviors owing to the
educational system.
In Thailand, a study was carried out by Vanijdee (2003) to explore English distance
students’ attitudes in Thai towards learner autonomy. Data from questionnaire, ThinkAloud
protocols and interviews indicated that the students’ degree of autonomy varied from selfsufficient language learners to dynamic distance language learners. While the former group
showed their limited degree of autonomy, the latter one seemed more proactive in their language

While many research papers have attempted to look into the problems of non-Western
cultures, it seems to have not sufficient materials to support the practice of learner autonomy in

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the context of Asian high school students, where freedom is limited by a wide range of
constraints (Nakata, 2014).
In her study, Nakata (2011) used both quantitative data from questionnaire and
qualitative data from focus group interview to investigate the perception of the high school
English teachers in Japan, in terms of their readiness for promoting learner autonomy. Eighty
English teachers answering the questionnaire expressed some main problems which they have
to face including students’ unreadiness for autonomous learning, the practice of grammartranslation method to support students for their university entrance exam and other restrictions
to their professional development. Besides, four interviewed teachers showed that the high
school teachers in Japan see the significance of promoting autonomy among their learners but
they seem not to be ready for it. From the results, Nakata encouraged high school teachers to
cooperate with their colleagues as well as reflect on their own teaching practice to solve the
problems in their teaching context.
In the same situation, where the educational system in Iranian high schools is considered
as test-driven and collectivist, Mohamadpour (2013) carried out an investigation, aiming to
explore the awareness of learner autonomy and their readiness to become autonomous. The
study also compared the issues among high and low English proficient students. Data collected
by questionnaire with thirty females and in-depth interview with seven volunteers pointed out
that their awareness of learner autonomy is rather low, but different between high English
proficient students and their low English proficient counterparts. In the other words, their
English proficiency, measuring by PET, is significantly correlates with their autonomy.
Showing the interest in the degree of learner autonomy and language learning strategy
uses among high school students in a junior high school in central Taiwan, Chen & Pan (2015)
carried out a survey with the use of questionnaire. Findings from 130 grade nine students
revealed that the students are medium autonomous learners and they tended to use the language