MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY
-----------------------------

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF STUDENTS’ USE OF
METACOGNITIVE AND COGNITIVE STRATEGIES ON STUDENTS’ READING
PERFORMANCE AT LAC HONG UNIVERSITY

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts (TESOL)

Submitted by Ly Tuan Phu

Supervisor
Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Vu

Ho Chi Minh City, September, 2016


STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify that this thesis entitled “An investigation into the effects of students’ use of
metacognitive and cognitive strategies on students’ reading performance at Lac Hong
University” is my own work.
Except where reference is made in the text of thesis, this thesis contains no material
published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in in part from a thesis by which I have qualified
for or been awarded another degree or diploma.
No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of
the thesis.
This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other

and researchers to construct a full picture of language learning strategy. There is a consensus
shared by those authors that learning strategies can significantly enhance students’ language
performance and competence. Another key theme is that different kinds of language learning
strategies are likely to yield divergent results on students’ performance. Among those kinds of
strategies, metacognitive and cognitive strategies are highly reported to be the ones that have
great impacts on students’ performance in their second language learning.
Given this important reason, the current study aims to throw more light on this
relationship in order to boost students’ reading performance at Lac Hong University. Designed
under the paradigm of a quasi-experimental research with the participation of an experimental
and a control group, the current study is aimed to detect the effects of students’ use of two kinds
of strategies, namely metacognitive and cognitive strategies on their reading comprehension. The
current study also employed a prominent model, the ACT (Adapter Character of Thought) model
proposed by Anderson, to shed more light students’ strategy acquisition. Findings from the study
highlighted that metacognitive and cognitive strategies incorporated into a strategy training
course could improve students’ reading performance. As for the strategy acquisition, it is
concluded that students need more time and practice so that they can use their new strategies
automatically at the procedural stage. With respect to the effectiveness of the strategy training
course, students generated a positive feedback to the course. In addition, they made
improvements in terms of better reading comprehension, reading speed vocabulary).

Key words: learning strategy, metacognitive and cognitive strategies, ACT, strategy
training course, strategy acquisition, reading performance.

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Table of Contents
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ................................................................................................. i
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iii

2.8 Metacognitive, cognitive strategies and students’ performance ............................................. 27
2.9 The role of teachers in strategy training course ...................................................................... 30
2.10 Learning strategy .................................................................................................................. 31
2.10.1 Definitions of learning strategy ................................................................................ 31
2.10.2 Taxonomies of learning strategies ............................................................................ 33
2.11 The intertwined relationship between metacognitive and cognitive strategies .................... 37
2.12 Factors affect the use of learning strategies .......................................................................... 39
2.12.1 Stages of training ...................................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... 42
3.2 Methods for answering research question............................................................................... 42
3.2.1 Quasi- experimental research ..................................................................................... 43
3.3 Data collection ........................................................................................................................ 43
3.3.1 Participants ................................................................................................................. 43
3.3.2 The strategy training procedure .................................................................................. 45
3.3.3 Research site ............................................................................................................... 46
3.3.4 Sources of data ........................................................................................................... 46
3.3.5. Data Analysis............................................................................................................. 50
CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 52
4.2. Analysis of students’ test scores ............................................................................................ 52
4.2.1 Stage 1: before the treatment ...................................................................................... 52

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4.2.2 Stage 2: after the treatment ......................................................................................... 54
4.3. Analysis of students’ questionnaires ...................................................................................... 56
4.3.1 The reliability of students’ questionnaires ................................................................. 56
4.3.3 Findings from students’ questionnaires ...................................................................... 73
4.4 Data from interview ................................................................................................................ 74
4.5 Discussions of the findings ...................................................................................................... 83


Table 4.1: The means of pretest score of control and experimental group ................................... 53
Table 4.2: The non-parametric t-test of pretest scores ................................................................. 53
Table 4.3 : Description of the posttest scores ............................................................................... 54
Table 4.4: The non-parametric t-test of the posttest scores .......................................................... 55
Table 4.5: The non-parametric dependent sample t-test of the experimental group .................... 55
Table 4.6: The non-parametric dependent sample t-test of the experimental group .................... 56
Table 4.7 : Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Comprehending strategies...................................... 57
Table 4.8: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Memory strategies................................................... 57
Table 4.9: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Retrieval strategies .................................................. 57
Table 4.10: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Planning strategies ................................................ 58
Table 4.11: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Monitoring strategies ............................................ 58
Table 4.12: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for Evaluating strategies ............................................. 58
Table 4.13: Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for the questionnaire ................................................... 59
Table 4.14: Result of Comprehending strategy from students’ questionnaires ............................ 61
Table 4.15: Result of Memory strategy from students’ questionnaires ........................................ 63
Table 4.16: Result of Retrieval strategy from students’ questionnaires ....................................... 65
Table 4.17: Result of Planning strategy from students’ questionnaires ........................................ 68
Table 4.18: Result of Monitoring strategy from students’ questionnaires .................................... 70
Table 4.19: Result of Evaluating strategy from students’ questionnaires .................................... 72
Table 4.20: Results of the semi-structure interviews .................................................................... 77

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ABBREVIATIONS

L1: mother tongue
L2: second language
EFL: English as a Foreign Language

strategy. In fact, the scientific classifications of learning strategies have been established by
experts in the field (Rubin, 1975; Oxford, 1990; Ellis, 1999; Chamot, 2005). Metacognitive and
cognitive strategies are found in those researchers’ published books and articles. Investigations
into the effects of metacognitive and cognitive strategies on students’ reading performance have
been carried out by prominent researchers in this theme. Findings from the research concur with
the research into the effects of learning strategies on second language learning. In conclusion,
researchers and experts in the field share the consensus on the positive effects of learning
strategies on second language learning performance. In a similar vein, the relationship between

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the use of metacognitive and cognitive strategies and second language reading performance is
likely to be significant. However, previous studies tend to dissect metacognitive from cognitive
strategies and vice versa. In contrast, a number of researchers claim that the relationship between
metacognitive and cognitive strategies is not a clear cut. Indeed, the relationship between
metacognitive and cognitive strategy is “complex” and the two types of strategies can be viewed
as “two interactive facets of the same mental process” (Phakiti, 2003, pp. 47 - 48). In addition to
the complex relationship between metacognitive and cognitive strategies, the process of how
students can transmit the metacognitive and cognitive strategies to a state that they can use those
strategies automatically is somehow neglected in those studies. It could be explained by the fact
that carrying out such studies requires great amount of time as well as advanced analysis.
Besides, a comprehensive theory is also needed to illuminate students’ process of strategy
acquisition. Cognitive theory represented via a comprehensive model will shed light on this
issue. In addition, a study integrated with a combination of different instruments to collect both
quantitative and qualitative data is needed to throw more light the issue mentioned above.
The brief introduction of strategy confirms one thing that there is still space for further
research into learning strategies. More and more efforts are needed to clear the fuzziness which
is clouding learning strategies. With respect to the Vietnamese contexts, the investigation into
the relationship of learning strategies with second language learning has been scattered. There

(Ellis, 1999). Hence, it can be implied that learning strategies play a vital role in language
learning by pushing students to achieve their aims in learning. However, learning strategies are
not easy to define and still “fuzzy” (Ellis, 1999, p. 529). Ellis (1999) grouped learning strategies
into two types: language learning strategies and skill learning strategies. Language learning
strategies “are concerned with the learners’ attempt to master new linguistic and sociolinguistic
information about the target language” while skill learning strategies “are concerned with the
learners’ attempt to become skilled listeners, speakers, readers, or writers” (Tarone, 1980, as
cited in Ellis, 1999, p. 530) Thus, conclusion can be drawn that language learning strategies are
related to language areas while skill learning strategies are concerned with the four main skills in
second language learning.
Meanwhile, based on the aims of them, Oxford (1990) claimed that “learning strategies
are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning” (p. 1) and the author defined learning
strategies as “specific actions taken by learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable,
more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (p.8). In this way,
learning strategies are more concrete as they are defined as the “steps” or “actions” that learners
take so smooth their language learning.

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Meanwhile, Chamot (2004) suggests that learning strategies are “the thoughts” and
“actions” by which learners employ to achieve their goals in learning. Cohen (2003) defined
language learning strategies as “conscious thoughts and behaviors” (p. 1) that learners use to
enhance their learning.
Though the definitions and classifications of learning strategies mentioned above hold the
same viewpoint that students intentionally and purposefully use learning strategies to achieve
their goals in second language learning.
1.3.2 Metacognitive and cognitive strategies
Metacognitive and cognitive strategies can be found in prominent writers’ and
researchers‘ taxonomies of language learning strategies.

1.3.4 Anderson’s ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought) Model
Anderson (1982) proposed a framework to show the process of skill acquisition under the
light of cognitive theory. This framework widely known as ACT consists of two main stages:
“declarative” and “procedural” stages (Anderson, 1982). More details of the two stages are
explained in the next part of this paper.
1.3.5 CALLA (Cognitive Academic Language Approach) Model
One of the models for teaching learning strategies which was developed by Chamot
(Chamot, 2004) was the so-called CALLA. The model is claimed to be “recursive “(Chamot,
2004). The author highlighted that in this model teaching and learning strategies are cyclical
process by which students “have the options of revisiting prior instructional phrases as needed”
(Chamot, 2004, p. 21). CALLA model consists of six steps:
Preparation: Teacher identifies students; current learning strategies of familiar tasks.
Presentation: Teacher models, names, explains new strategy, asks students if and how
they have used it.
Practice: Students practice new strategy; in subsequent strategy practice, teacher fades
reminders to encourage independent strategy use
Self- evaluation: Students evaluate their own strategy use immediately after practice.
Expansion: Students transfer strategies to new tasks, combine into clusters, develop
repertoire of preferred strategies.
Assessment: Teachers assesses students’ use of strategies and impact on performance.
(Chamot, 2004, p. 22)
1.4 Statement of purpose
As mentioned above, although research into the effects of learning strategies and their
effects on second language learning has been conducted so far, there has not been much research
investigating the two intertwined facets of metacognitive and cognitive strategies at university
level in Vietnamese context. In addition, there is also a lack of research in to the strategy training

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1.6 Research questions
This thesis was set to answer the following main question:
How effectively do metacognitive and cognitive strategies affect students’ reading
performance?
This main research question is then underlined by four sub-questions related to students’
reading performance before and after the training course, their frequency of strategy use, their
process of strategy acquisition and their attitudes towards the strategy training course. Thus, to
answer the main question, the thesis is set to answer the four following sub-questions:
1. To what extent does the use of metacognitive and cognitive strategies affect students’
reading performance?
2. What are the changes in students’ use of strategy in terms of frequency after the
course?
3. What are students’ perceptions on the process of strategy acquisition?
4. What are students’ attitudes towards the strategy training course?
1.7 Structure of the thesis
There are five chapters of the thesis which are organized as:
Chapter 1 describes the background of the study, along with its significance, statement of
purpose and the research questions. Chapter 2 highlights the literature review. Chapter describes
the research design and methods used for data collection. Chapter 4 involves data analysis from
three sources, namely students’ test scores, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. This
chapter focuses on how data is used to answer the previous research questions and to write up the
findings drawn from data analysis. Chapter 5 presents conclusions and suggestions for further
research.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction

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reading topic to help them comprehend the text. In addition, readers then are provided language
input from the text and from the aids of their teachers. In addition, they can be put in a new
context which is mentioned by Scramm (2008) as she claimed that second language learners are
put into the language environment than the first language. Such reading process seems to be
passive at the first glance as readers are given resources from the teachers to gasp the
comprehension of the text. In fact, both reading and listening were considered to be passive
(Wallace, 2001) in the past. However, the reading process is not as passive as it seems. Since the
role of reading has been increasing through time, the traditional role of reading has gradually
changed. Wallace (2001) claimed that reading is an interactive process. The author pointed out
that the interactiveness can be observed in the process that students actively interact with the text
to reconstruct its meaning (Wallace, 2001). Agreed with Wallace’ viewpoint, a number of
authors shared the premise that reading is an active process (Silberstein, 1994; Scramm, 2001).
Silberstein (1994) proposed a similar definition of reading which emphasizes the cognitive
feature of reading process. During the process, students continuously interact with the text to
construct their own understanding of the text. Hence, reading process seems to be passive at first
but is an active process due to students’ continuous interaction in their reading process. In a
similar vein, the same viewpoints of reading can be found in the work focusing on the topic
about reading and good language learners. Scramm (2001) wrote that reading is an active
process in which readers build the meaning of a given text.
Likewise, Mikulecky (2008) highlighted the role of cognition in her definition of reading.
She argued that “reading is conscious and unconscious thinking process” (Mikulecky, 2008). A
more comprehensive definition of reading is proposed by Klingner, Vaugh, and Boardman
(2007) that reading is a multicomponent, complex, and interactive process.
Wallace (2001) provided a much more comprehensive definition of reading by stating
that reading is more than a process. As the roles of learners in second language learning have
been emphasized, the role of reading has changed accordingly. Reading can be redefined as a
practice, process or product depends on its focus in reading process. Reading is a practice as one

one might question the author about the role of comprehension. Is it important to master skills
and strategies than to fully comprehend a reading text? In fact, there is a close relationship
between the ways readers read a text and their levels of comprehension. Thus, students who have
good reading skills and wise use of strategies are bound to achieve high level of comprehension.
In addition to reading skills and reading strategies, there are perhaps other ingredients of good
reading comprehension. Hence, it is more important to reading comprehension and recognize
the factors that contribute to a high level of comprehension.

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2.3 Factors of reading comprehension
One of the definitions of reading comprehension is reading is defined as a “skill” that
readers need to focus on (Abdelrahman & Bsharah, 2014, p. 168). This viewpoint indicated that
reading comprehension is similar to reading strategies employed by the students to comprehend
the text. This seems to be rather confusing as students may mistake their reading strategies with
reading comprehension. A question like this could be raised as” Do students who master good
reading skills are likely to gain high level of reading comprehension?” To full answer this
question, a clearer definition of reading comprehension is needed in this case. A comprehensive
definition of reading is proposed by Williams and Atkins (2009) that a full comprehension of the
text means that readers can connect the main ideas of the text. Moreover, they can have a critical
look at what they comprehend from the text and apply this new knowledge in new learning.
Specially, a full comprehension consists of various factors such as identifying meaning(s) of new
words, dealing with sentences, connecting main ideas, and the action of inference (Williams&
Atkins, 2009). Other researchers stated that readers need a more effective tool, comprehension
questions, in order to achieve the goal of reading comprehension. In fact, comprehension
questions are designed to help readers directing and monitoring their process of reading to reach
its comprehension. As readers can provide meaningful answers to comprehension questions,
which means they can comprehend the text successfully. Comprehension questions can help
learner monitor the reading process so that they can achieve the aims outlined in advance

However, one major issue is that this pre-knowledge is complex and diverse among the students.
Each student possess different levels of knowledge related to the topic of a text and. Regarding
to students’ background knowledge, Phakity (2006) pointed out a number of factors that affect
reading comprehension including learners’ language competence, personal factors, and reading
tests.
Relating to the taxonomies of reading comprehension, Anderson (2003) provided a
diagram of reading comprehension which is made up from 4 main elements reading strategies,
reading texts, the fluency, and the way readers constitute the act of reading. The author went
further to emphasize the importance of background knowledge in reading. In his opinion, to
achieve the full comprehension, students need to orchestrate their background knowledge and the
information from the text.
With inference to other factors contributing to second language reading, researchers have
shifted their focus on automaticity during reading process. Anderson (2000) indicated that the
more automatic the reading process is, the more efficient reading will be (as cited in Phaekity,
2006, p. 55). In a smaller paradigm, Rasinski and Samuels (2011) linked automaticity to the
speed of word recognition. They concluded that good readers are good at word recognition. They

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can recognize new words rapidly, which saves them from spending too much time and efforts on
such process compared to the poor readers. Readers who are low in automaticity need to spend
more time on recognizing new words, which reduces the time resource for their reading. As a
result, their reading speed is stagnating. In contrast, readers with high automaticity have more
time to attend to the meaning of the text, which means that they have greater chance to gain
higher level of reading comprehension. Related to the vocabulary of a text, language
comprehension means that students can understand what they can decode from the text (Adlof,
Perfetti & Catts, 2011). Students do not only recognize the words but also fully grasp the
meaning of the words. Hence, students’ mastering the meaning of new words can contribute
greatly to reading comprehension (Adlof, Perfetti & Catts, 2011). In short, it can be concluded

the reading process (Scramm, 2008). The author went to state that readers need to employ their
background knowledge and develop their resources of receptive skills in order to help them
understand the meaning of a given text. Though it seems that teachers have few things to do with
students’ background knowledge, teachers in fact can give guidance to help students expand their
“pre-knowledge” (p. 231). Cook (2008) consolidated this theme by pointing out that reading
process is not limited in the text given alone, which means the meaning of a text is the derivation
of both a text and readers' background knowledge.
Harmer (2001) classified reading into two broad types: extensive and intensive reading.
The main feature that helps distinguish extensive from intensive reading is students’ choice of
reading materials. As for extensive reading, students have the right to choose for themselves the
materials to read, which is encouraged by their teachers. As for intensive reading, the materials
for reading are chosen in advance. To develop the balance of two kinds of reading, students
should be involved in two kinds of reading in order to improve their reading skills. Harmer also
pointed out the three major receptive reading skills that students need to master: (1) reading for
gist (known as skimming to get the main ideas of the text), (2) reading for specific information
(known as scanning), and reading for inference (to find out what is between the lines and
attitude) (p. 283).
The kind of reading that participants mainly encounter in the course is intensive reading
as the reading materials are decided by the department in advance. The aims of the course are
also identified with the materials. As for the aims, students are expected to learn vocabulary and
expand their knowledge of business. As for the skills, they are expected to dig deeper in reading
skills and develop the speaking through discussion.
2.5 Reading Processes
2.5.1 Bottom up and top down process
Bottom-up process is made up from low levels of reading process. Readers start with the
lowest levels such as identifying letters and sounds. And then move on to morpheme recognition

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