The Practice of English Language
Teaching
Longman Handbooks for Language Teachers
The Practice of English Language Teaching New Edition - Jeremy Harmer
An Introduction to English Language Teaching - John Haycraft
Teaching Oral English New Edition - Donn Byrne
Communication in the Classroom - edited by Keith Johnson and Keith Morrow
Teaching English Through English - Jane Willis
Teaching English with Video - Margaret Allan
Using Computers in the Language Classroom - Christopher Jones and Sue Fortescue
Teaching English Pronunciation - Joanne Kenworthy
Writing English Language Tests New Edition - J.B. Heaton
Teaching Writing Skills New Edition - Donn Byrne
Teaching Listening - Mary Underwood
Teaching on Holiday Courses - Nick Dawson
Process Writing - Ron White and Valerie Arndt
Teaching Literature - Ronald Carter and Michael N. Long
J
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material;
David Attenborough Productions Ltd & BBC Enterprises Ltd for an extract from the
recording
'Groundwell' broadcast 13.4.84, Radio 4, released by arrangement with BBC Enterprises
Ltd,
(p) BBC 1982 & 1984; Cambridge University Press for an extract from A Way with Words
I by

(bottom left and right). Canada Wide for page 197. Collins Publishers Limited for paj
Culver Pictures for page 113. Englang for page 228 (top). Ronald Grant Archive for [
(top left). Heinemann Publishers (Oxford) Limited for pages 112 and 222. Impact Phc
le Garsmeur for page 205. Just Seventeen for page 203. Macmillan Publishers for pagt
and 218. Thomas Nelson & Sons Limited for pages 217 (tpp), 217 (bottom) and 228 (i
Network/Sparham for page 202 (top right). Oxford University Press Limited for pages
164 and 226. Penguin Books Limited for pages 99 and 100. We have been unable to tn
copyright owner for the illustrations on page 127 (middle and bottom), and would appr
any information to enable us to do so.
All other examples have been taken from titles published by Longman Group UK Limi t"
2
Jeremy Harmer
The Practice of
English Language
Teaching
New Edition
in
Longman %
London and New York
r
Longman Group UK Limited,
Longman House, Burnt Mill, Harlow,
Essex CM20 2JE, England
and Associated Companies throughout the world.
Distributed in the United States of America
by Longman Publishing, New York
© Longman Group UK Limited 1991
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

90-48696
PART A:
BACKGROUND
ISSUES
Preface
1 Why do people learn languages?
1.1 Reasons for learning
languages
1.2 Success in language learning
1.3 Motivational differences
1.4 Conclusions
4
Discussion/Exercises/References
2 What a native speaker knows
2.1 Pronunciation
2.2 Grammar
2.3 Vocabulary
2.4 Discourse
2.5 Language skills
2.6 Conclusions
Discussion/Exercises/References
3 What a language student should learn
3.1 Pronunciation
3.2 Grammar
3.3 Vocabulary
3.4 Discourse
3.5 Skills
3.6 The syllabus
3.7 Language varieties
3.8 Conclusions

6.7 Conclusions 90
Exercises/References 90
7 Practice 92
7.1 Oral practice 92
7.2 Written practice 109
7.3 Conclusions 120
Exercises/References 120
8 Communicative activities 122
8.1 Oral communicative activities 122 -
8.2 Written communicative activities 139
8.3 Correcting written work 146
8.4 Projects 147
8.5 Learner training 149
8.6 Conclusions 151
Exercises/References 151
9 Teaching vocabulary 153
9.1 Language structure and vocabulary 153
9.2 Selecting vocabulary 154
9.3 What do students need to know? 156
9.4 Teaching vocabulary 159
9.5 Examples of vocabulary teaching 161
9.6 The importance of dictionaries 174
9.7 Conclusions 178
6
Discussion/Exercises/References 179
PART C:
MANAGEMENT
AND
PLANNING
10 Receptive skills 181

have been written; new techniques have become fashionable. We must be
grateful for all this flux and change since without it teaching would be a grey
and ultimately depressing experience. But of course it isn't (except
sometimes!). It's a constantly interesting and exciting occupation and the
new discoveries and insights that we come across or which are put before us
make it more challenging and keep us on our toes where otherwise we
might become stifled by the routine of it all.
With all these things going on it became clear that a new edition of
The Practice of English Language Teaching was necessary. In the first place
the textbook examples in the first edition were quite simply out of date.
A new generation of materials is in use and this needs to be reflected
in the book. Then there is the issue of methodology. In the last few years
we have seen an awakening of interest in task-based learning, self-directed
learning, learner training, and discovery techniques to name but a few of the
many concerns that have excited us all. There has also been a renaissance of
interest in vocabulary and vocabulary teaching.
These, then are some of the considerations which have prompted
this new edition. Readers who are familiar with the original will find here
a completely new chapter on teaching vocabulary (Chapter 9). Discovery
techniques appear (especially in Chapters 6 and 9); there is an extended
discussion on language learning theory and approaches in Chapter 4
(including new sections on Task-based learning and Humanistic
approaches) and a recognition of the change in perception about what
communicative competence might be in Chapters 2 and 3. Dictation makes
an appearance in Chapter 7 and the chapter on communicative activities
(Chapter 8) includes new categories for oral and written exercises and
sections on learner training and projects. In Chapter 11 the discussion of
8
teacher roles has been expanded and clarified; there is a new section on
the use of the mother tongue. Chapter 12 has a new specimen lesson Jjlan.

version, offering constructive comment and criticism in the most positive
and encouraging fashion.
Both Anita Harmer and (at Longman) Damien Tunnacliffe have
provided encouragement and incentive for me to get on and complete this
new version. In their different ways their enthusiasm for the project has
helped me to tackle what turned out to be a bigger job than at first
anticipated. As editor, Helena Gomm has helped to make the whole process
bearable and Alyson Lee has cheerfully steered the book through its final
stages.
I have been extremely fortunate in the comments I have received from
Julian Edge which have been stimulating and often amusing. More than
once he has been able to suggest ways out of certain problems, for which
I am very grateful. I also had useful comments from Nick Dawson.
Since The Practice of English Language Teaching was published I have
had the good fortune to work with a large number of language teachers in
many different countries. The comments they have made and the feedback
I have received about methodology in general (and this book in particular)
have been immensely helpful during this period.
To all these people, many thanks. I can only hope that they will look
upon the results of their influence and endeavours with pleasure.
Jeremy Harmer
Cambridge 1991
1 Why do people learn
languages?
In this chapter we are going to look at the reasons people have for learning
languages (especially English), and the reasons for their success as language
learners.
PART A:
BACKGROUND
10

something they feel neutral (or sometimes negative) about.
(b) Advancement
Some people want to study English (or another foreign language) because
they think it offers a chance for advancement in their professional lives.
11
They will get a better job with two languages than if they only know their
mother tongue. English has a special position here since it has become the
international language of communication.
(c) Target language community
Some language students find themselves living in a target language
community (either temporarily or permanently). A target language
community (TLC) is one where the inhabitants speak the language which
THE PRACTICE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
the student is learning; for students of English an English-speaking country
would be a TLC. The students would need to learn English to survive in
that community.
(d) English for Specific Purposes
1
The term English for Special or Specific Purposes has been applied to
situations where students have some specific reason for wanting to learn the
language. For example, air traffic controllers need English primarily to
guide aircraft through the skies. They may not use the language at all apart
from this. Business executives need English for international trade. Waiters
may need English to serve their customers. These needs have often been
referred to as EOP (English for Occupational Purposes).
Students who are going to study at a university in the USA, Great
Britain, Australia or Canada, on the other hand, may need English so that
they can write reports or essays and function in seminars. This is often
called EAP (English for Academic Purposes). Students of medicine or
nuclear physics - or other scientific disciplines - (studying in their own

1.2.1
Motivation
are only interested in one of the forms of ESP mentioned above may be
taught very differently from students who are learning English 'for fun'.
Students who study English because it is on the curriculum need to be
handled in a different way from those who go to a language institute out of
choice.
Most students who make that decision - to study in their own time - do
so for a mixture of the reasons mentioned above. We will be focusing on
them in this book. We will also be dealing with students for whom English
13
is part of the curriculum. We will not concentrate specifically on students
of ESP although we will be mentioning them at various stages throughout
the book.
Why are some students successful at language learning whilst others are not?
If we knew the answer to that question the job of teaching and learning a
language would be easy. We don't, of course, but we can point to a number
of factors which seem to have a strong effect on a student's success or
failure.
People involved in language teaching often say that students who really
want to learn will succeed whatever the circumstances in which they study.
All teachers can think of situations in which certain 'motivated' students do
significantly better than their peers; students frequently succeed in what
appear to be unfavourable conditions; they succeed despite using methods
which experts consider unsatisfactory. In the face of such phenomena it seems
reasonable to suggest that the motivation that students bring to class is the
biggest single factor affecting their success.
Motivation is some kind of internal drive that encourages somebody to
pursue a course of action. If we perceive a goal (that is, something we wish
to achieve) and if that goal is sufficiently attractive, we will be strongly

there are two main types of such motivation, integrative motivation and
instrumental motivation?
(a) Integrative motivation
For this kind of motivation students need to be attracted by the culture of
the target language community, and in the strong form of integrative
motivation they wish to integrate themselves into that culture. A weaker
form of such motivation would be the desire to know as much as possible
about the culture of the TLC.
(b) Instrumental motivation
This term describes a situation in which students believe that mastery of the
target language will be instrumental in getting them a better job, position or
status. The language is an instrument in their attainment of such a goal.
Many other factors have an impact upon a student's level of extrinsic
motivation and most of these have to do with his or her attitude to the
15
language. This in turn will be affected by the attitude of those who have
influence with that student; if the parents are very much against the (culture
of the) language this will probably affect his or her motivation in a negative
way. If they are very much in favour of the language this might have the
opposite effect. The student's peers (his or her equals) will also be in a
powerful position to affect his or her attitude as will other members of the
student's community.
Another factor affecting the attitude of students is their previous
experiences as language learners. If they were successful then they may be
pre-disposed to success now. Failure then may mean that they expect
failure now.
What can teachers do about extrinsic motivation and student attitude?
4
It is clear that we cannot create it since it comes into the classroom from
outside. It is clear, too, that students have to be prepared to take some

possible to improve the atmosphere with posters, students' work, etc. on the
walls.
We can say, then, that the atmosphere in which a language is learnt is
vitally important: the cold greyness of much institutionalised education must
be compensated for in some way if it is not to have a negative effect on
motivation.
(b) Method
The method by which students are taught must have some effect on their
motivation. If they find it deadly boring they will probably become
de-motivated, whereas if they have confidence in the method they will find
it motivating. But perhaps this is the most difficult area of all to be certain
of. We said earlier that a really motivated student will probably succeed
whatever method (within reason) is used. It is also true that different
students are more or less sympathetic to any particular method depending
upon their expectations. Teachers can easily recall students who felt that
there was not enough grammar or enough conversation (depending on the
students' taste at the time)! Despite various attempts there is unfortunately
no research which clearly shows the success of one method over another.
17
What we do know, however, is that if the student loses confidence in the
method he or she will become de-motivated. And the student's confidence
in the method is largely in the hands of the most important factor affecting
intrinsic motivation, the teacher.
(c) The teacher
Whether the student likes the teacher or not may not be very significant.
What can be said, though, is that two teachers using the same method can
have vastly different results. How then can we assess the qualities a teacher
needs to help in providing intrinsic motivation?
In 1970 a study done by Denis Girard attempted to answer this
question.

I asked both teachers and students what they
thought 'makes a good teacher'. The teachers were English language
teachers in Britain, Finland and Spain. The students were half EFL students
and half British secondary school children. The two areas that most of the
people mentioned were the teacher's rapport with the students and the
teacher's personality. People wanted a teacher who was 'fun' or one who
'understands children'. But many people also mentioned the need for
teachers to motivate students through enjoyable and interesting classes; and
quite a few wanted their teachers to be 'well prepared' and to be teachers
they could have confidence in.
Neither Girard's students nor the small survey mentioned in the
previous paragraph prove anything about good teachers; other
methodologists have failed to provide us with a definitive answer either. But
we can make some generalisations with confidence.
In the first place the teacher's personality matters a lot (and yet this is
the most difficult area to quantify or to train for). But beyond that it is clear
that teachers need to do everything possible to create a good rapport with
their students. Partly this happens by providing interesting and motivating
classes: partly this comes from such things as treating all the students the
same (one of the secondary students I questioned said 'a good teacher is
... someone who asks the people who don't always put their hands up') and
acting upon their hopes and aspirations. Most of all it depends on paying
more attention to the students than to the teacher!
Lastly teachers clearly need to be able to show that they know their
subject - or in the words of an experienced EFL teacher 'If you don't
know what you're talking about they soon see through you!' They should be
19
able to give clear instructions and examples and as far as possible have
answers to the students' questions.
WHY DO PEOPLE LEARN LANGUAGES?

class will have the same motivation, and we have already said that
motivation is a mixture of different factors. Nevertheless it is possible to
make some general statements about motivational factors for different age
groups and different levels. We will look at children, adolescents, adult
beginners, adult intermediate students and adult advanced students.
More than anything else, children are curious, and this in itself is
motivating. At the same time their span of attention or concentration is less
than that of an adult. Children will often seek teacher approval: the fact
that the\teacher notices them and shows appreciation for what they are
doing is of vital importance.
Children need frequent changes of activity: they need activities which
are exciting and stimulate their curiosity: they need to be involved in
something active (they will usually not sit and listen!), and they need to be
appreciated by the teacher, an important figure for them. It is unlikely that
they will have any motivation outside these considerations, and so almost
everything for them will depend on the attitude and behaviour of the
teacher.
Adolescents are perhaps the most interesting students to teach, but they can
also present the teacher with more problems than any other age group.
We can certainly not expect any extrinsic motivation from the majority
of our students - particularly the younger ones. We may hope, however,
that the students' attitude has been positively influenced by those around
them. We have to remember that adolescents are often brittle! They will ■=
probably not be inspired by mere curiosity, and teacher approval is no
longer of vital importance. Indeed, the teacher may not be the leader,
THE PRACTICE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
1.3.3
Adult
beginners
1.3.4

classrooms in which they are studying. Success may be motivating, and the
perception of having 'more advanced English' may be a primary goal.
It is for the latter reason that problems often arise. Beginners, as we
have said, easily perceive success; since everything is new, anything learnt is
a success. But intermediate students already know a lot and may not
22
perceive any progress. Alternatively they may be overwhelmed by the new
complexity of the language.
Our job would seem to be that of showing the students that there is still
a lot to learn (without making this fact demoralising) and then setting
realistic goals for them to achieve. Once again, a major factor seems to be
getting the level of challenge right.
These students are often highly motivated. If they were not they would not
see the need to continue with language study when they have already
achieved so much. Like some intermediate students (but even more so) they
will find progress more difficult to perceive. Much of the time they may not
be learning anything 'new' but learning better how to use what they already
know.
The teacher has a responsibility to point this fact out and to show the
students what it is they will achieve at this level: it is a different kind of
achievement. Many advanced teachers expect too much from their students,
feeling that the setting of tasks and goals is in some way demeaning. But
just because advanced students have difficulty in perceiving progress and
success they may well need the clarity that the setting of short-term goals,
tasks, etc. can give them.
WHY DO PEOPLE LEARN LANGUAGES?
1.4
Conclusions
Discussion
Exercises

Why?
1 Design a questionnaire which will tell you:
a) Why your students are learning English.
b) If they are intrinsically motivated.
Give it to the students. Discuss the results with colleagues and students.
2 In consultation with a colleague decide on three more qualities a teacher
needs apart from those mentioned in 1.2.3 (c).
3 With a colleague choose one of the levels/age groups mentioned in 1.3
and make a list of things you could do with them which would not be
24