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the other hand, occur in warmer waters that average around
18ºC and can reach into the high 20s. These reefs are built by
the animals that live there, especially algae and corals. Over time,
the reef grows by building on top of the calcium carbonate
skeletons of polyps.
W: Excuse me sir, what exactly are polyps?
M: Polyps? Polyps are small simple tube-shaped water animals. The
polyps divide and grow on top of their old skeletons or houses.
Now, as I said earlier, we can use coral reef ecosystems as indicators
of larger, global changes. All sorts of information about the
past can be obtained from rocks and coral cores. Coral reefs
can tell us things such as which times the Earth experienced a
rise or fall in sea levels. They can even inform us about events
such as ice ages, huge volcanic eruptions, and meteors falling
to Earth causing mass extinctions by wiping out whole species.
Modern corals grow in warm, clear, well-lighted and shallow
water. Since coral reefs grow best from the low tide line to
about a 20-meter depth, even relatively small changes in sea
level can have very dramatic effects on coral reef growth. Reefs
will always grow to the level of low tide. The location of fossils
in a reef is very important because by observing fossils in a reef,
we can accurately estimate sea level at the time the reef was
formed. Therefore, fossils help us chart the various changes in
sea level that have occurred over the years. Thanks to research
by marine scientists, we know that sea level change has been
going on continuously during the evolution of corals and reef
organisms. There have been 17 cycles of sea level rise and fall
in the last 2 million years.
So, how do marine scientists get their information? One method

people are better at academic tasks than others. The results of
looking at IQ test scores from the past and from today show that
the younger generation today is significantly more intelligent
than their parents were in their adolescence. How significant?
10 points. This is a fairly large amount considering that IQ is only
really measurable within a range of 70 to 130 points. This means
that, on average, humans are increasing in intelligence by one
IQ point every four years. Interesting, isn’t it?
So, why would this be? Well, we have a few theories. First off,
nutrition may be a key factor. More different kinds of food are
more readily available today than ever before. This has been true
for many, many years, so every new generation is privileged
with better nutrition when developing in the womb. This is a
critical period in the development of the brain. Nutrition makes
a big difference during childhood as well. Think about what
your parents used to eat for breakfast. Bacon, eggs, sausage,
ham, steak...not a lot of vitamins!
Another theory is that as the world becomes more and more
complex, our brains have to develop more in order to cope with it.
The brain works just like a muscle. The more you use it, generally,
the stronger it gets. A good example is computers. My daughter
is six years old and has learned how to navigate the Internet,
burn a CD, save files to folders, and a number of other tasks that
her grandparents certainly can’t do! You know, when I was six, all
I had to learn how to do was turn on the TV and flip between
3 or 4 channels.
Your improved intelligence might also have something to do
with your upbringing. Responsibility and self-reliance are both
available and necessary at a much younger age than when I
was a child. There are very few stay-at-home parents anymore.

they are replaced. This number varies between different phyla, but
that’s an average figure. Evolution does its work, and older species
often die out because of climate changes and natural catastrophes.
Species that adapt well survive in the new conditions, and the cycle
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continues. Some hardy species, though, have weathered the
ages and remain with us today. It’s truly amazing to think that
these plants and animals have adapted to so many changes. In
some cases, perhaps, there has been stability in their environment,
too. Nonetheless, these survivors are a scientific wonder because
of their success.
First of all, it’s important to realize that we have what are deemed
“living fossils,” but this isn’t precisely the same as a “lazarus
taxon.” I’ll explain that term soon. For now, let’s stick with living
fossils. A living fossil is a species of plant or animal that has
existed since far back in the geological record and has never
disappeared. These species haven’t changed their form at all
over an extensive period of time. What I mean is that they have
lasted much longer than the average of 2 to 3 million years that
I mentioned a few minutes ago. A great example of this is the
tuatara lizard in New Zealand. This wonderful reptile has been
around longer than the dinosaur. And we can find consistent
evidence of its existence as far back as 200 million years ago.
Tuataras are a single living species with no close living relatives,
but which are the survivors of a large and widespread group in
the fossil record. Another well-known example of this is the
ginkgo tree. Ginkgo trees used to be part of a large group of
plants, but, like tuataras, they’re now one of a kind. Perhaps

had become extinct. Their sudden discovery on Earth today
places them in the lazarus category. Until that fossil record gap
is filled, they remain in that special category. I see we’re almost
out of time. Do any of you have questions?
Skill D
01 Campus Life
M: Hey Jill. You’re looking down. What’s wrong?
W: Hey Mike. Man, my whole academic career is in jeopardy. I don’t
know what to do anymore about my studies.
M: What do you mean? I thought you were skating through your
classes and enjoying it.
W: That’s the disheartening part. I was really enjoying my classes. I
really thought social work was the vocation for me and that I
had an aptitude for it.
M: So, what went wrong?
W: I just got my statement of grades back from last semester. I got
a C- in one of my core classes. That means I can’t take the next
level. I don’t know what to do.
M: How did you do in your other classes?
W: Fine --- mostly A’s and B’s. I don’t know how I ended up with a C-!
M: What do you mean? You didn’t expect that grade?
W: No way! I had been doing quite well up until the final exam and
term paper. In fact, it had been my best class.
M: Do you know the grade you earned on your exam and paper?
W: No, but I must have bombed them to drop my grade down to
a C-.
M: Well, how did you feel about them? I mean, did you work hard
on the paper? Did you find the exam really tough?
W: I worked really hard on that paper. Man, I did tons of research
on it, but I guess I didn’t write it that well. The exam was tough,

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02 Business Administration
W: Good afternoon, class. Today, we’ll be discussing an aspect of
business that is becoming more and more popular these days.
We talked a little bit about this last class, and you should have
read about it in your textbook, so you know that there is a lot
of hype about franchising. Why do you think that is?
M: It’s safe.
W: Exactly! When businesspeople buy a franchise, they are buying
a business model that is tried and tested. People know that it
works. When starting a new business from scratch, it takes a
long time to learn that business, and it takes a significant amount
of capital. What’s more, it’s potentially quite risky. With a franchise,
on the other hand, someone else has done the learning already.
A franchisee just has to apply that proven business model to
garner success. Another thing, a franchisee is buying a product
to sell that people not only recognize, but have an established
brand loyalty to. Thus, the demand is already established. The
most obvious example would be McDonald’s restaurants. Everyone
knows McDonald’s. A new McDonald’s franchisee doesn’t have
to convince consumers to buy the product because they already
do. There is a ready-made, established market. Furthermore,
franchises involve less start-up capital. The franchisee doesn’t
need to invest as much money in a franchise as he or she would
to open up an independent business. Sounds pretty good,
doesn’t it? But what would you say if I told you that new
franchises are actually less likely to survive than new independent
businesses? Not only that, but they’re less profitable as well.
M: If you weren’t my business professor, I wouldn’t believe you.
So, with all of these benefits of franchises you just mentioned

W: That may be the case. Franchises do still have all the benefits I
mentioned earlier. The potential franchisee has to look closely
at the franchiser and analyze the potential demand for that
proven product in the marketplace. He or she would also have
to carefully analyze his or her own skills and acumen in business
as well as the particular service being offered to the consumer.
Of course, there are many factors involved. The nice thing
about running your own business is that you have freedom.
With a franchise, you are tied down by rules set by the franchiser.
When running your own business, on the other hand, you can
be creative in the ways you generate profit.
03 Geography
M: I’m sure many of you have experienced jetlag. You know, that
tired, off feeling you get after traveling across time zones. Today,
we’re going to look a little more closely at time zones. You all
know, from the readings and our previous lectures, about the
lines of latitude and longitude, and how they help us locate a
given location on a map. Just to review, we’ve got the equator at
0º latitude. Now, how does the equator divide the Earth again?
Is it north-south or east-west?
W: The equator? It divides the Earth into northern and southern
hemispheres.
M: Right you are. So, all of the lines of latitude run parallel to the
equator all the way up or down to each of the poles. The equator
is at 0º, and the poles are located at 90º north and south. Then,
there are the lines of longitude, and the big one is the Prime
Meridian. It runs from the North Pole, through Greenwich, England,
to the South Pole, and is designated as 0º. On the other side, it
goes back up to the North Pole at 180º. Each line of longitude
measures the angle from the Prime Meridian going east or west

it is noon. East of this line, it is afternoon. West, it’s morning. So,
for example, if the sun is directly over Thailand, it is noon there.
Go about 15º east to the Philippines, and it’s 1:00 in the afternoon.
Go west about 15º from Thailand to Sri Lanka and it’s 11:00 a.m.
So, let’s say we are in Greenwich, England, and we want to call
New York. Remember, Greenwich is at 0º longitude and New York
is 74º west longitude. So, here in Greenwich it’s 7:00 in the
morning. So, what time is it in New York? Just divide 74º by 15. We
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divide by fifteen, remember, because that’s how fast the Earth
spins --- 15º per hour. OK, so 74 divided by 15 is just about five.
So, we are going five time zones west of Greenwich, which means
we are going five hours back. Seven minus five is two. So, it’s 2:00
in the morning in New York--- probably not a good time to call.
OK, just to reiterate, time zones are calculated based on the lines
of longitude and the spin of the Earth. After doing the math
work, we can see that one hour of time is the equivalent of 15º
traveled by the Earth. You can use this 15º figure to calculate
the time difference between two places, which can help you
predict how bad your jetlag is going to be on a long trip!
04 Campus Life
M: Hey Nancy. Have you heard about the university’s new alcohol
policies? Man, it really ticks me off!
W: I haven’t heard anything. What’s going on?
M: They’ve decided to make it a dry campus!
W: Wow. That’s a big step. I’m not so sure it’s a bad idea, though.
Why are you so mad about it?
M: What! Come on, we’re all adults here. At least, the vast majority of

campus, and I probably won’t be the only one.
W: All right, that’s your choice. I think I’ll still stay in the dorms. It’ll
still be a convenient place for attending classes, consulting with
professors, and doing research in the library. I don’t want to
spend too much time commuting every day when I could be
studying instead.
M: Yeah, you’ve got some good points there. Still, if we can’t drink
on campus, then a lot of students will be going to other areas
of the city to drink and have fun. This means we’ll likely see an
increase in drunk driving charges, maybe even injuries and deaths.
In the end, I’m not sure if they’re improving the health of the
student body or just sweeping the problem under the carpet so
to speak.
W: That’s a pretty strong argument. I think you should take it up
with the president.
M: I just might write him a letter.
05 Music
W: What comes to mind when you think of “Romantic” music?
M: Love songs? Ballads?
W: Ah-ha, yes the term “romantic” now calls to mind images such
as roses, candles, and flowers, but this is not the meaning of
romantic music. It was not specifically music to listen to on a date.
Remember, there are three periods of pre-20
th
century European
classical music.
The first is Baroque, which occurred between the years 1600
and 1760. Baroque music is typified by Johan Sebastian Bach.
Musical performances became larger and more complex during this
period. Also, opera became established in the Baroque period.

Symphony is also known as the “Symphony of a Thousand,”
because it took so many people to play it. Also, in the Classical
period, a symphony lasted about 25 minutes. A Romantic
symphony, however, often lasts up to 45 minutes. We also saw
new instruments such as the piccolo become popular during
this period.
Another major difference between the Romantic period and
the Classical period that preceded it was the motivation behind
the work. Nearly all Romantic pieces have a program, or theme,
often based on a book, painting, myth, or folktale. For instance,
Hector Berlioz created the theme of his Symphonie Fantastique
himself. Through the symphony, Berlioz tells the story of how a
young artist falls in love with a woman who doesn’t return his love.
You can probably guess the tragic end to this story told through
music. “Character pieces” also came into being during the Romantic
period. These are short pieces dedicated to a particular mood or
feeling. They are usually played only on the piano. Composers
such as Chopin and Schumann favored this approach. Opera
was also affected. Many of the distinct movements began to
blend together into a continuous flow of music.
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To recap, then, the Romantic period of music had little to do
with love, as we now associate with the word “romantic.” It
was a period of musical work that followed the Classical period
and the Baroque period before that. Romantic period music
stressed the importance of expressing emotion over careful
attention to form and musical structure. New chords were
added, and the arrangements of symphonies were altered. In

M: Yes, that’s right. You probably know him best for Treasure Island
and The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, but these are
not his only works. In his time, he was known as a great author
of travel books, short stories, and literary articles, in addition to
fictional novels. Born in 1850 in Edinburgh, Mr. Stevenson had
poor health right from his childhood. He suffered from tuberculosis,
a disease affecting the lungs. This sickness would greatly affect
the course of Stevenson’s life as he moved from place to place
trying to find a climate suitable for his condition. He first went to
school to study engineering but later changed to law. He passed
the Scottish Bar Exam in 1875 at the age of 25, but he never
actually got around to practicing much law. Instead, he spent his
time writing essays, short stories, and travel pieces. He published
a book called An Inland Voyage based on his canoe tour of
Belgium and France in 1878. On this trip, he also met his wife,
Fanny Osbourne. They got married in 1880 and moved to California
for a while. Then, they went back to Scotland but never really
permanently settled there. They kept moving around in search
of better climates for the rest of Stevenson’s life.
Stevenson became famous with his pirate adventure novel,
Treasure Island, published in 1883 when he was 33 years old.
Three years later, he published Kidnapped as well as his most
famous work, The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.
Who can tell me about this story? I’m sure you’ve all seen it in
one form or another. There was even a version featuring Bugs
Bunny and Porky Pig, if I recall correctly.
W
1
: Sure, I know that one. That’s the story of the scientist who drinks
some chemical formula and becomes a big, mean monster...

W: What’s the matter, John?
M: Oh, I’m just really frustrated at the moment. My midterm paper
for my philosophy class is due at five o’clock, and I have to type
it up, but the computer lab is always packed with people. No
matter what time of the day I go there, there is always a waiting
list a mile long to get on a computer.
W: Which computer lab do you go to?
M: What do you mean, which lab? The only computer lab I know
of is the one in the basement of the library.
W: Actually, there are several computer labs around campus. The
one in the basement of the library is the biggest, but that is
probably why everyone goes there. That or, like you, they don’t
know about the others. Personally, I usually use the computers
in Anderson Hall.
M: Anderson Hall? Isn’t that the Business Administration building?
W: Yeah. They only have about a dozen computers in that lab, but
it’s pretty easy to find free ones there. I guess not many people
know about it.
M: I had a business class there last semester, but I never saw a
computer lab in that building.
W: It’s kind of hidden away. My roommate’s an accounting major.
She spends most of her time in that building, and she told me
about it.
M: So where is it then?
W: Do you know where the student lounge is in Anderson Hall?
M: It’s on the second floor, right? The first room you come to at
the top of the stairs --- the stairs at the front of the building, I
mean.
W: Right, and a couple of doors down from that is the copy room.
Go in there, and you’ll find another door that goes into the