1

PART 1: INTRODUCTION

This part, which is an introduction to the thesis, helps to provide the background as well as the
context for the present study. The section includes the statement of the problem and rationale
for the study, research questions, aims and objectives, significance, scope of the study and an
overview of the rest of the paper.

1. Problem statement and rationale for the study

Since the first characteristic of “being able to function in a language is the ability to speak
that language” (Nunan, 1999, p. 225), English learners will lend themselves naturally to the
study of English pronunciation. Garrigues (1999) pointed out that good pronunciation is the
foundation of effective spoken communication. If speakers pronounce clearly and correctly,
their audience interlocutors should be able to understand what they are trying to express
easily. On the other hand, misunderstanding, in many cases, may occur when words are
inaccurately pronounced or stressed. As it can affect accuracy and comprehension,
pronunciation is drawing more attention in many ESL/EFL classrooms.

However, ESL/EFL learners encounter some common difficulties when learning
second/foreign language pronunciation. According to Kenworthy (1987), the factors affecting
students’ acquisition of pronunciation can be the native language, the age factor, the amount of
exposure, phonetic ability, attitude and identity, motivation and concern for good
pronunciation and the teacher’s role. Among those, several factors such as the age factor and
the phonetic ability can hardly be intervened during the learning process at the tertiary level
whereas the rest of which can be mediated with the help of the teacher.

As for Vietnamese learners, among the listed factors, the differences between Vietnamese and
English segmental and suprasegmental aspects of pronunciation pose many difficulties. Ha’s

pronunciation? The communicative approach to pronunciation teaching requires teaching
methods and objectives that include whole-person learner involvement (Morley, 1991).
Morley stated that there are three important dimensions the teacher should cater for in any
pronunciation program: the learner's intellectual involvement, affective involvement, and
physical involvement. The learner's involvement in the learning process has been noted as one

3

of the best techniques for developing learner strategies (Morley, 1991). It is, therefore, the
teacher's responsibility to develop the learning process so that the learner has the greatest
chance to develop the learning strategies that are unique to each individual. Vitanova &
Miller (2002) believed that once learners have mastered the basic sounds of English, it is time
to help them learn some strategies so that they can study more effectively on their own.
However, most of the research in the field of learning strategy instruction has focused on
reading as one of the important language skills (Carrell, 1998), and on cognitive strategies as
one of the main categories of learning strategies but little attention was paid to pronunciation
and metacognitive strategies, particularly the relationship between these two.

Metacognitive strategies, according to O’Malley and Chamot (1990), include selective
attention to the task, planning, self-monitoring, and self-evaluating. The importance of
metacognitive strategies has been emphasized by O'Malley et al. (1985, p.561) by stating that
"students without metacognitive approaches are essentially learners without direction or
opportunity to review their progress, accomplishment, and future directions". According to
Anderson (2002b), developing metacognitive awareness in learners may also lead to the
development of stronger cognitive skills and much deeper processing. It results in critical but
healthy reflection and evaluation of thinking. Therefore, in order to seek answers to the first
question proposed above, the present study focuses on explicit metacognitive strategy
instruction and its impact on pronunciation improvement of the students.

In answering the second question, to help learners become more involved in their own

ii) evaluate the effectiveness of peer tutoring in the form of a pronunciation assignment and
see if, to what extent it helps to build up the students’ speaking confidence.
iii) find out whether students’ overall pronunciation competence is improved after such
practices as metacognitive strategy training and peer tutoring assignment are adopted or not.

3. Research questions

Based on the purposes of the study, the researcher attempted to develop a program particularly
for improving students’ pronunciation of consonant sounds. This investigation was designed to
answer the following questions: 5

1. What metacognitive strategies were employed by the students in their self-learning?
2. Can peer-tutoring assignment help to develop students’ speaking confidence?
3. Is there a significant difference in students’ pronunciation after metacognitive strategy
training and peer tutoring assignment?

4. Scope of the study
The research was conducted on a group of 15 students in the Collaboration Program of
College of Technology. Regarding its scope, the study only aimed at using metacognitive
strategy training and peer tutoring to improve students’ oral communication with reference to
segmental aspects of pronunciation. Particularly, the study investigated the effects of the
intervention on students’ pronunciation of consonant sounds. Vowel sounds, although
appeared in the practice of some tactics of metacognitive strategies throughout the research,
were not the focus of this study.
In addition, the study only takes the definition of reciprocal peer tutoring developed by
Fantuzzo and his associates (Fantuzzo, King, & Heller, 1992) into consideration. Reciprocal
peer tutoring refers to the type of tutoring which enables students to function reciprocally as

The following parts of the study were divided into five chapters:

PART 2: Development
Chapter 1: Literature Review
This chapter reviews the current theories in pronunciation teaching and learning, the
classifications of language learning strategies, types of peer tutoring and the justification why
this study fits in the research area.
Chapter 2: Methodology
The Methodology chapter explains why action research was chosen as the research method,
presents the arguments for using metacognitive strategy training and peer tutoring as the
research variables, shows the steps of how the research was conducted, justifies data collection
instruments and data analysis methods.
Chapter 3: Findings and discussion
In chapter 3, the actions, findings and analysis of the findings in Cycle 1 and Cycle 2 of the
research are provided in response to the research questions.

7Chapter 4: Implications
This chapter attempts to link the research results and discussed issues in the previous chapter
to the real-life second teaching and learning of pronunciation. This chapter suggests the
framework of teaching segmental aspects of pronunciation with the use of learning strategies
and pronunciation assignment to promote learners’ confidence in speaking English
PART 3: Conclusion
This part summarizes the findings of the action research, acknowledges the limitations and
offers suggestions for further research.


9

role in helping learners develop ways of improving their pronunciation and shaping their
attitude toward the importance of pronunciation (Richards & Renandya, 2002 cited in
Varasarin, 2007). Fraser (1999, cited in Varasarin, 2007) concluded that most ESL teachers
agree that confidence with pronunciation allows learners to communicate more
successfully in the target language.
1.1.2. The acquisition of pronunciation

A number of studies have attempted to identify the factors that affect second/foreign language
students’ acquisition of pronunciation. Kenworthy (1987) has summarized these factors in his
book:

• The native language
This is proved to be the most influential factor affecting a students’ pronunciation. If the
students are familiar with the sound system of their native language, they will be influenced
enormously when they learn a second language. Therefore, a “foreign accent” which refers to
people with an accent of their native language can be easily identified among speakers of
English. It is known to many people that there exist the so-called Australia English,
Singaporean English, Vietnamese English, Indian English as the influence of the mother
tongue on the learning of English accent.

• The age factor
Although it is often assumed that younger learners could learn to pronounce the second
language better than older ones, according to Kenworthy (1987), age is not the crucial factor
that affects learning or improving pronunciation abilities Brown (1992) presented that adults
were probably able to learn second language phonology as well as children did, in a direct
way, using a traditional listen-and-repeat exercise, minimal pairs in the context of the
sentences, conversation and role playing. However, there was no evidence for a simple and

the fact that when people like something, they are more likely to pay more attention to it. They
were not afraid of the second identity that may have been emerging within them. On the
contrary, some students are also aware of their foreign accent and do not attempt to sound like
native speakers as they want to be identified as the second language learners.

• The motivation and concern for good pronunciation

11This can become the strongest factor as the studies revealed. If learners really care much about
their pronunciation, they will become more careful with their speaking, and gradually build up
good pronunciation performance.

To conclude, these six factors have some effects on pronunciation learning and improvement.
Even though the age or the phonetic ability of learners cannot be controlled, teachers can
increase students’ exposure to the target language to a certain degree. Motivation seems to be
the main factor for successful pronunciation; therefore, teachers should promote it in their
classroom. For these reasons, innovation in teaching techniques can play an important role.

1.1.3. Intelligibility

As stated before, with the prevalence of the communicative language teaching approach,
students are not expected to attain a “perfect” but “accepted” pronunciation. In other words,
the most common goal for ESL/EFL learners is “intelligibility”. Kenworthy (1987, p. 13)
defines intelligibility as “being understood by a listener at a given time in a given situation”.
By that it means, even when a foreign pronunciation is not precisely the same as a native
pronunciation, if it is understandable by the listener without much difficulty, it is acceptable.

However, an arising issue that concerns “intelligibility” is that why some foreign accented

consonants, and the suprasegmental aspect comprises word, phrase, and sentence stress, pitch
contour or intonation, and rhythm”.

The issue of teaching suprasegmentals in preference to segmentals is debatable. Because
segmental phonology is relatively more easily explained and taught than the suprasegmental
features (Coniam, 2002 cited in AbuSeileek), some studies focus on studying segmental
phonology in preference to suprasegmental features. However, as some recent studies have
revealed, new approaches to pronunciation have shifted focus away from segmental to
suprasegmental aspects of sound system. The current study is based on the belief that both
segmental and suprasegmental aspects of pronunciation are equally important to improve oral
communication competence but at different stages of students’ development, more attention
should be paid to either segmentals or suprasegmentals. As the students in this study are at

13

pre-intermediate and lower level, the focus is on segmental more than on suprasegmental
aspects.

Traditionally, the three basic criteria used in the articulatory description of a sound are vocal
cord vibration (voicing), the place of articulation and the manner of articulation. As this study
focuses on segmental aspects of pronunciation, particularly on consonant sounds, the
following part only details the classification of consonant sounds in English. The table below
(table 1) summarizes the manner and place of articulation of English consonants:

Manner of articulation
Place of articulation
plosive fricative
semi-
vowel
liquids,

// as in thin / as in then
/s/ as in sap /z/ as in zap
// as in shine
//as the middle of pleasure
/h/ as in hat

* Semi-vowels are produced by keeping the vocal tract briefly in a vowel like position, and
then changing it rapidly to the position required for the following vowel.

unvoiced voiced
/w/ – similar to ‘oo’, as in wet
/y/ – similar to ‘ee’, as in yet

* Laterals – l is the only English lateral, and is produced by putting the tip of the tongue
against the gums and letting the air pass on either side of the tongue. (Memorable because
lateral = sides)
unvoiced voiced
/l/ as in let

* Nasal consonants are made with the soft palate down – air passing through the nose.
unvoiced voiced
/m/ as in met
/n/ as in net
// /as in sing 15

1.3. Common errors of Vietnamese learners concerning consonant sounds



Among them, the most common errors were sound omission in which omission of the ending
sounds were more frequent than others. It is easy to understand why ending sounds were

16

omitted so frequently, because Vietnamese speakers do not have to pronounce the ending
sounds. In addition, some of the sounds such as /, ,  /, are really hard for Vietnamese
learners to pronounce especially when they occur at the end of words. For example, as for the
sound //, the air-stream escapes through the narrow groove in the centre of the tongue and
causes friction between the tongue and the alveolar ridge. This is normally difficult for
Vietnamese learners because we do not have the same sound in our language, especially when
this sound occurs at the final position of a word. The act of holding the tongue against the
alveolar ridge for the air to pass through with some friction is a completely new concept for
many learners. The habit of “swallowing” the ending sound in the mother tongue is in fact a
negative transference that inhibits the pronunciation of ending sounds in the target language
(Ha, 2005).

There are several explanations for the weak pronunciation of Vietnamese students, among
which the lack of the exposure to authentic input is one important cause. Pronunciation used
not to be treated seriously in the curriculum of the secondary and high schools in Vietnam;
therefore, it is undeniable that Vietnamese learners have problems pronouncing these sounds.
Regarding the sounds that do not exist in Vietnamese that cause confusion to the learners, the
only way that can help is to provide the students with authentic input. Apart from providing
official pronunciation training program in the syllabus, students should be encouraged to show
concern for good pronunciation at any time they are exposed to the target language.

1.4. Language learning strategies
1.4.1. Concept of language learning strategies and other related terminologies


1. Strategies refer to both general approaches and specific actions or techniques used to
learn a L2.
2. Strategies are problem oriented – the learner deploys a strategy to overcome some
particular learning problem.
3. Learners are generally aware of the strategies they use and can identify what they
consist of if they are asked to pay attention to what they are doing/thinking.
4. Strategies involve linguistic behavior (such as requesting the name of an object) and
non-linguistic (such as pointing at an object so as to be told its name).

18

5. Linguistic strategies can be performed in the L1 and L2.
6. Some strategies are behavioral while others are mental. Thus some strategies are
directly observable, while others are not.
7. Some strategies contribute indirectly to learning by providing learners with data about
the L2 which they can then process, while others may contribute directly (for example,
memorization strategies directed at specific lexical items or grammatical rules)
8. Strategy use varies considerably as a result of both the kind of the task the learning is
engaged in and individual learner preferences.
As can be seen, the above characteristics summarized by Ellis have revealed most of the
debatable traits of the notion. The list can be considered “one of the best approaches to
defining strategies” (Ellis, 1999, p. 532). It is, therefore, reasonable why the present study
chooses to refer to the notion of learning strategies with all the characteristics listed in the
study of Ellis (1999). It is also the attempt of the present study to differentiate the “general
approaches” and the “specific actions” by referring to them as “strategies” or “tactics”,
respectively, as “tactics can be thought as specific tools to achieve the success of more
general strategies” (Oxford, 1990, p. 7).

1.4.2. Importance of learning strategies in the learning process


1.4.3. Classification of language learning strategies

Language Learning Strategies (LLS) have been classified by many scholars (Rubin 1981;
O'Malley and Chamot 1990; Oxford 1990; Ellis 1999, etc.). However, most of these attempts
to classify language learning strategies reflect more or less the same categorizations of
language learning strategies without any radical changes. For example, Rubin (1981)
considers learning strategies, communication strategies and social strategies three different
kinds of strategies. In their taxonomy (1990), O’Malley and Chamot, based on cognitive
theory, develops the strategies into metacognitive, cognitive and social affective strategies.
However, of all the classifications, the present study chose to follow Oxford’s (1990) which is
seen to be the most comprehensible way of classification by Ellis (1999, p. 539) “the most
comprehensive classification of learning strategies to date”.
Oxford’s taxonomy of language learning strategies (1990)

20

Oxford's taxonomy of language learning strategies (1990, p. 17) is summarized as follows:

DIRECT STRATEGIES INDIRECT STRATEGIES
I. Memory
A. Creating mental linkages
B. Applying images and sounds
C. Reviewing well
D. Employing action
II. Cognitive
A. Practising
B. Receiving and sending messages
strategies
C. Analysing and reasoning
D. Creating structure for input and output

Through the years, researchers interested in pronunciation learning have examined many
variables in attempting to explain successful second language pronunciation ability. However,
a potentially important variable as “learning strategies” has been surprisingly absent from the
literature until recently. Research (Vitanova & Miller, 2002) has shown that learners can see
improvement in both segmental and supra-segmental areas of pronunciation. However, once
learners have mastered the basic sounds of English, it is time to help them learn some
strategies so that they can study more effectively on their own (Vitanova & Miller, 2002). The
relationship between learning strategies and pronunciation therefore needs further
investigation (Morley, 1998).

A few investigations have looked at pronunciation as one of a number of skills associated with
learning style use. For instance, O’Malley et al. (1985a) asked 70 high-school ESL students
about the learning strategies they used to help them with nine different oral language tasks,
one of which was pronunciation. In this study, students reported that they used a number of
strategies for pronunciation. However, this study did not report the specific strategies that
were used for pronunciation learning. Other older studies, however, documented a number of
specific strategies used for pronunciation learning (Naiman et al., 1978 and Rivers, 1979). In
the first study, the researchers asked 34 good students to describe their language learning
experiences and in these reports, a number of learning strategies emerged. In the latter study,
the researcher recorded her own experience in learning Spanish in her diary during five weeks
abroad. Here, it was clear that several tactics and strategies were recorded for better

22

pronunciation in Spanish.

Surprisingly among those few bodies of research, the pronunciation learning strategies and
tactics were carefully categorized and documented by Oxford (1990) and Peterson (2000). In
Peterson (2000), the strategies by Oxford were studied and condensed. Also, he added a wider
range of specific pronunciation learning tactics than in Oxford’s. It is important to state again

Pronunciation
Learning Strategies
Oxford’s Peterson’s
1. Finding out about TL
pronunciation
Acquiring a general
knowledge of phonetics
N/A

2. Setting goals and
objectives
Deciding to focus one’s
listening on particular
sounds
Deciding to focus one’s listening on
particular sounds
Deciding to memorise the sounds (or the
alphabet) right away
3. Planning for a
language task
N/A
Preparing for an oral presentation by
writing difficult-to-pronounce words very
large in one’s notes.
4. Self evaluating N/A
Record oneself to listen to one’s
pronunciation
Table 1.3: Pronunciation metacognitive strategies by Oxford (1990) and Peterson (2000)
It is interesting to note that Oxford did not document any tactics under the third and the fourth
component (planning for a language task and self evaluating). On the other hand, no

It is acknowledged that there are a number of factors involved in strategy training, for
instance, what strategies are taught or how they are taught, and that most strategy training
studies contain some mixed results. While researchers have been arguing about successful
strategy training and unsuccessful strategy training, it appears that most students react
positively to strategy training experiences (Oxford, 1990).

25

1.5.2. Steps for strategy training
Finding the usefulness of strategy training, some researchers tried to present a model including
the steps to be taken by teachers for this kind of instruction (Oxford,1990; O'Malley &
Chamot, 1990). O'Malley and Chamot (1990) found two approaches in teaching learning
strategy, direct (overt in Oxford's model) and embedded (covert in Oxford' model).
Direct training
Direct training is "learning strategy instruction in which students are informed about the
value and purpose of learning strategies" (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, p. 229).
Embedded training
Embedded training is "guidance in the use of learning strategies that is embedded in the task
materials but not explicitly defined to the learner as strategy instruction" (O'Malley &
Chamot, 1990, p. 230). They added that embedded approach had little effect on learners.
Wenden (1987) has also criticized embedded instruction since with this kind of training the
learners who were not familiar with cognitive or socio-affective strategies that were available
to them, could not use the metacognitive ones and as a result no transfer occurred. As a result,
she recommended the use of a more direct approach for the instruction.
Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA)
Chamot & O'Malley (1994) proposed CALLA (Cognitive Academic Language Learning
Approach) as a useful framework for direct language learning strategies instruction which
includes five phases: introducing, teaching, practicing, evaluating, and applying learning
strategies. In this approach, highly explicit instruction in applying strategies to learning tasks
is gradually faded so that students can begin to assume greater responsibility in selecting and