Vietnam national university - hanoi
College of foreign languages - Post-graduate department
***
trÇn thÞ thanh b×nh
Some Australian-Vietnamese cross-
cultural differences in student-to-
teacher addressing
(Mét sè kh¸c biÖt giao v¨n ho¸ óc viÖt trong–
c¸ch xng h« cña sinh viªn víi gi¸o viªn)
Field: Linguistics
Code: 50409
Course: K11
M.A minor - thesis
Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. NguyÔn Quang
Hai Phong, July 2005

M.A. thesis
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nguyen Quang, my supervisor, for his constant help
throughout the study.
I am indebted to all my lecturers in Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Post -
Graduate Department for their lectures that enabled me to write this study.
Also I would like to thank Australian and Vietnamese colleagues and friends who
spent their precious time completing the questionnaires.
I wish to thank my cousin, Tran Viet Cuong, who is living and studying at Sydney
University, NSW for his help to my questionnaires and surveys.
Finally I owe the completion of this study to my husband, my parents and my
classmates who always encouraged me throughout the study and supported me with
everything I need.
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M.A. thesis
Abbreviations
A.Q. Academic qualification
A.S. Australian Student (s)
D. Distance
F Female
FN First name
LN Last name
M Male

affect the use of addressing terms.
- To suggest cross-cultural translation of addressing terms between English and
Vietnamese in order to help learners of English avoid misunderstandings and
miscommunication.
3. Methods of the study
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M.A. thesis
The study begins by exploring some governing factors in addressing in general.
They are believed to be the linguistic basis upon which addressing terms are to be analyzed.
Speech acts, especially the illocutionary acts, is the first hypothesis that contribute to
addressing terms. The second hypothesis is the cross-cultural categorical dimensions of
addressing in which some are used effectively such as directness vs. indirectness; positive
politeness vs. negative politeness. Besides, interlocutors’ parameters (e.g. age, gender,
position, qualifications ) also affect strongly the use of addressing terms. The last…
hypothesis is three categories of translation and levels of translation that help us make an
exact translation version in addressing in each certain circumstance.
With the data collected from Australia and Vietnam, we shall have necessary
linguistic input and information of addressing. On that basis, differences are to be found
and discussed. In this thesis, the author focuses on the address terms used in teacher-
student interactions. So, the investigation is centered on these informants only.
Some Australian-Vietnamese cross-cultural differences in teacher-student
addressing will then be compared. The data analysis methods are taken from “Doing
Second Language Research” by James Dean Brown and Theodore S. Rodgers.
4. Scope of the study
The study focuses on the addressing terms used by two cohorts of teachers and
students in Australia and Vietnam. These addressing terms will be analyzed in some
specific situations in their universities. How the teachers address the students and how the
students reply are very different. In the study, the author focuses on some main factors that
exercise their influence on the use of addressing terms such as age, gender, marital status,

festivals, the speaker meets a young lady wearing a beautiful red skirt, admires for a while
and produces the utterance “The color looks good on you!” This utterance is likely to be
interpreted as a compliment. Changing the circumstance to an unhappy occasion, for
example a funeral service, with the same utterance produced, the meaning of this is likely
to be interpreted as a delicately sarcastic remark.
If the same utterance can be interpreted as different kinds of speech, then obviously
no simple one utterance to one action correspondence will be possible. It also means that
there is more to the interpretation of a speech act than can be found in the utterance alone.
It is useful at this point to draw from Austin’s analysis of speech acts. He introduces
a classification of acts performed when a person speaks. The first is a locutionary act
producing a meaningful expression. For instance, if we make a simple sentence like “It’s
terribly cold today”, we are likely to produce a locutionary act.
Moreover, we mostly do not make utterance without having any purpose implied in
them. Take the previous sentence as an example, we do not only simply say that sentence
but also have an implication of inquiring the listener or people around to turn on the central
heating or close the windows. This kind of acts via utterances we produce with purposes in
8

M.A. thesis
mind is generally known as illocutionary acts. These acts are performed for communicative
function.
The third classification of speech acts given by Austin is named perlocutionary acts.
“In communicating, we do not simply create an utterance without intending to have an
effect.” (G, Yule-1997). For the sentence: “It’s terribly cold today”, we all wish the act of
taking an action to turn on the central heating or close the windows. Once Hearer
recognizes the speaker’s intention, the act is generally known as having the perlocutionary
effect.
From the point of view of Yule, G (1997), of the three dimensions, the most
discursive one is illocutionary force. Indeed, the term speech act is generally interpreted
quite narrowly to mean only the illocutionary force of an utterance. (1996:49). For instance,

S = Speaker
X = Situation
Declarations
Representatives
Expressives
Directives
Commissives
words change the world
makes words fits the world
makes words fits the world
make the world fits words
make the world fits words
S causes X
S believes X
S feels X
S wants X
S intends X
Another approach to distinguish different types of speech acts is based on the
relationship between the structure and the function. As Yule, G claims, three structural
forms (declarative, interrogative, imperative) and three general communicative function
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M.A. thesis
(statement, question, command/request) can be combined to create two other types of
speech acts: direct and indirect speech acts.
E.g.: Could I have a glass of milk?
The request can be understood in a structurally direct way to that the speaker needs
a glass of milk.
Whenever there is an indirect relationship between a structure and a function, we
have an indirect speech act.

identifiable aspects of ‘working class culture’ or ‘Black culture’. Give the process of
cultural transmission that language is passed on from one generation to the next by which
it is acquired. It makes a lot of sense to emphasize the fact that linguistic variation is tied
very much to the existence of different cultures. However, one quite influential theory of
the connection between language and worldview proposes a much more deterministic
relationship.
The term ‘cross-cultural’ usually refers to the meeting of two cultures or two
languages across the political boundaries of nation-states. They are predicated on the
equivalence of one nation – one culture – one language.
There are many things that we do in our own culture that we never ask question
about. We do things without thinking about them because we have always done them in the
same way. When we are in another culture or with people from a different culture, we see
that people do things in many different ways. One of the first differences we notice is the
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M.A. thesis
form of address that is used in the culture. The language that people use to address each
other tells us many things about a culture. For example, the language of addressing people
gives cultural information about customs, relationships, and communication style, both
verbal and nonverbal. You will learn mainly about addressing people in other cultures.
Being polite is a complicated business in any language. It is difficult to learn
because it involves understanding not just the language, but also the social and cultural
values of the community. There are two different types of politeness. Positive politeness is
solidarity - oriented. It emphasizes shared attitudes and values. A shift to a more informal
style using slang or swear words will function similarly as an expression of positive
politeness. By contrast, negative politeness pays people respect and avoids intruding on
them. Using title and last name (TLN) to your teacher is an example of an expression of
negative politeness.
In some languages, people often use address terms expressing solidarity semantic
that is one of in-group identity markers. Vietnamese language has the same characteristic

translation would occur if a written text were translated. Interlingual translation is an
interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language.
That the translators can work fast depends upon such factors as the translators’
experience, their familiarity with the subject matter, and whether they dictate the translation
or have to type it themselves. There are three levels of translation:
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M.A. thesis
- Word-for-word: Each word (or occasionally morpheme) in the source language
is translated by a word (or morpheme) in the target language. The result often
makes no sense, especially when idiomatic constructions are used.
- Literal translation: The linguistic structure of the source text is followed, but is
normalized according to the rules of the target language.
- Free translation: The linguistic structure of the source language is ignored, and
an equivalent is found based on the meaning it conveys.
The aim of translation is to provide semantic equivalence between source and target
language. This is what makes translation different from other kinds of linguistic activity.
However, there are many problems hidden within this apparently simple statement, all to do
with standards of equivalence should be expected and accepted. Exact equivalence is of
course impossible: no translator could provide a translation that was a perfect parallel to the
source text, in such respects as rhythm, sound symbolism, puns, and cultural allusions.
Such a parallel is not even possible when paraphrasing within a single language: there is
always some loss of information. The success of a translation depends on the purpose for
which it was made, which in turn reflects the needs of the people for whom it was made.
To Vietnamese teachers, how to teach Vietnamese students of English translate
address terms is not an easy work. Some of them seem to understand it very simply and
they forget its culture. What they focus on is only the comment of text. Sometimes it is
funny to translate from English to Vietnamese when a student asks. So, we not only look at
the literal translation, but also the cross-cultural translation. It is one of essential parts of
understanding address terms across cultures.

relationships between the hearer and the speaker, attitudes or feelings Besides, there…
exists many other address terms as follows:
- Title alone (T): E.g. Professor, Dr., Mr., Miss. …
+ Social title: E.g.: Mr., Mrs., Madam …
+ Career title: E.g.: Professor, Doctor …
- Title with last name (TLN): E.g. Mr. Clinton …
- Last name alone (LN): E.g. Michael Nixon, Mary King …
- First name (FN): E.g. Michael Nixon, Mary King …
- Multiple names (MNs)
However, there are only two main selections: first name and title with last name.
When people want to show the solidarity semantic, they address the partners by first name.
But when they show the power semantic, title with last name is used.
These two address terms are divided into three groups:
- Mutual exchange of FN
- Mutual exchange of TLN
- Nonreciprocal exchange of TLN and FN
According to Brown and Ford (1964), the two address terms are influenced by the
time the interlocutors know each other and the solidarity. Wardhaugh (1986:262) states:
using first name of someone [ ] is not only expressed the solidarity. FN can use among…
the close colleagues (even they do not like each other). FN even use for the officials, or
when expressing the disdain or admiration.
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M.A. thesis
Title (T) is an address term that can be used. It is not very different from TLN.
These address terms are used between people who haven’t known each other very well or
by a one-way relationship of the lower to the higher position person.
In terms of multiple names (MNs), Brown and Ford (1964:238) explain: sometimes
we use TLN; sometimes we use FN, LN or Diminutives, or other variables of phonetics.
I.4.2 Addressing system in Vietnamese

6 ch¾t/con cô
7
«ng ch¸u/con
8 ch¸u/con «ng
9
bµ ch¸u/con
10 ch¸u/con bµ
11
b¸c ch¸u/con
12 ch¸u/con b¸c
13
bè con
14 con bè
15
mÑ con
16 con mÑ
17
chó ch¸u/con
18 ch¸u/con chó
19
c« ch¸u/con
20 ch¸u/con c«
21
thÝm ch¸u/con
22 ch¸u/con thÝm
23
cËu ch¸u/con
24 ch¸u/con cËu
25
d× ch¸u/con

There are five survey questionnaires altogether, in which two first survey
questionnaires are for Vietnamese students, another is for Vietnamese teachers of English
and the last two are for Australian students who are native speakers of English.
In the survey questionnaires, the author focuses on three main points: the factors
that affect addressing; the frequency of addressing and the actual addressing in some
specific situations. Then, in the last part, there is a comparison between English and
Vietnamese addressing, and the author also advances some implications for teaching
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M.A. thesis
addressing terms to Vietnamese learners of English. The information is taken from some
Vietnamese teachers’ experiences in the process of teaching English.
The subjects are only teachers and students. The setting is universities (in
Vietnam and Australia).
Also, the author designs the survey questionnaires with some clear tables and
ready parameters so that informants find it easier to tick or number. Besides, there are open
questions to measure reactions by students and teachers. All of these questions are
compiled on the basis of specific situations. The informants can tick or give more opinions
about the problems of addressing that they cope in their life in the universities.
However, the survey questionnaire does not simply collect information from
informants, but also contains the considerations in addressing to find out the underlying
factors that determine the choice of linguistic forms that have been used and some
dimensions in cross-cultural communication, which govern the addressing terms.
II.2. the informants
The Australian informants were twenty in number: ten females and ten males
who are the students of some faculties at Sydney university, aged between twenty and
twenty-four. However, it should be noted here that Australia is a multi-cultural country.
The informants might be influenced by those different cultures. But they have been living
there for a long time and have been adapted to Australian modes of addressing. The author
intentionally includes their responses in the data and comments on any differences that they

of a group. They may include open-response items in the form of filling and short-answer
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M.A. thesis
questions, but generally speaking, they are predominantly made up of more close-response
items such as multiple-choice, yes-no, and ranking.
Compiling research data (2002:6) means putting all the data together in one
place in such a way that you can more easily analyze and interpret them. This might mean
putting numerical data in rows and columns on graphing paper, or it might mean
transcribing taped interviews, or coding activities observed in a classroom.
Analyzing research data (2002:7) is that the researcher need to undertake more
detailed linguistic analyses of the language, noting changes in vocabulary, grammar,
punctuation, capitalization, letter format, and cohesion, and finding the differences in
thoughts that the data is done. The researcher should then organize these changes and
differences in the form of a table. Tables are often used not only to organize data analysis,
but also used in research reports as a way of presenting results in a final form.
Using tables (2002:34) is a process of analyzing the original data, organizing and
reporting the results. There are several things that worth noting in Henning Wode’ s paper.
- The table and text are interlocked. A table appears with accompanying text
explaining the table and highlighting points in that table the author wants the
reader to focus on.
- The author compromised here with transcription of the language data. He
himself decided on what data reporting form best suited his purpose.
- The number of the participants was not reported. It is used to show some general
trends over a large number of mixed participants with mixed data.
The formulas are used:
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M.A. thesis
Percentages are calculated by dividing the total number in one category by the total

When informants were asked to indicate what they take into consideration the
most in addressing between teachers and students in English, each of them selected several
categories. So the percentage is based on the number of informants who select one category
against the total.
Table 3: (by percentage)
Category N M
Age
1
Gender
2
Marital
status
3
Occupatio
n
4
Power
5
The time
you have
known
each
other
6
Situation of
interaction
7
Academic
qualificatio
n