Structural and functional evidence for a singular
repertoire of BMP receptor signal transducing proteins in
the lophotrochozoan Crassostrea gigas suggests a shared
ancestral BMP/activin pathway
Amaury Herpin
1,2
, Christophe Lelong
2
, Thomas Becker
1
, Frederic Rosa
3
, Pascal Favrel
2
and Charles Cunningham
1
1 Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, High Technology Centre, Bergen, Norway
2 Laboratoire de Biologie et Biotechnologies Marines, IBFA, Universite
´
de Caen Basse-Normandie, IFREMER UMR 100, Physiologie et
Ecophysiologie des mollusques marins, Caen, France
3 U 368 INSERM, Ecole Normale Supe
´
rieure, Paris, France
The genes governing mesoderm specification have been
extensively studied in vertebrates, arthropods and nem-
atodes. The latter two phyla belong to the ecdysozoan
clade but little is understood of these molecules in the
other major protostomal clade, the lophotrochozoa.
An increasing amount of comparative data from
ecdysozoans as well as from vertebrates suggests

severe disturbance of anterioposterior patterning, due to strong modula-
tions of ventrolateral mesoderm patterning. The results suggest that
Cg-BMPR1, and to a certain degree Cg-TGFbsfR2 proteins, function in
C. gigas in a similar way to their zebrafish orthologues. Finally, based on
phylogenetic analyses, we propose an evolutionary model within the com-
plete TGF-b superfamily. Thus, evidence provided by this study argues for
a possible conserved endomesoderm ⁄ ectomesoderm inductive mechanism in
spiralians through an ancestral BMP ⁄ activin pathway in which the singu-
lar, promiscuous and probably unique Cg-TGFbsfR2 would be the shared
type II receptor interface for both BMP and activin ligands.
Abbreviations
BMP, bone morphogenetic protein; BMPR2, type II BMP receptors; TGF-b, transforming growth factor b.
3424 FEBS Journal 272 (2005) 3424–3440 ª 2005 FEBS
patterning are highly conserved with respect to both
structure and function, regardless of diversity and evo-
lution of body plans [1–5].
The transforming growth factor b (TGF-b) super-
family, which includes bone morphogenetic proteins
(BMPs), activin and activin-like proteins such as nodal
and their receptors, has been implicated in multiple
processes during animal development. Members of the
TGF-b superfamily transduce signals through hetero-
meric complexes of ligand specific type I and II ser-
ine ⁄ threonine kinase receptors [6]. Type II receptors
are capable of binding ligand dimers alone, while type
I receptors can only bind ligands in cooperation with
type II receptors. Ligand binding induces the forma-
tion of a heterotetracomplex in which the two type II
receptors unidirectionally transphosphorylate a dimer
of type I receptors. Activated type I receptors in turn

notypes arising from mutations in the gene encoding
wishful thinking, wit , suggest a role for this protein in
synapse regulation and ⁄ or maintenance [15,16].
As part of an ongoing project to understand the role
of the TGF-b superfamily ligands, their receptors and
signal transduction pathways in the lophotrochozoan
bivalve mollusc Crassotrea gigas, we report the cloning
and functional study of the central part of the BMP
pathway (the Cg-BMPR1 type I receptor and
Cg-TGFbsfR2 type II receptor). This shows probably
the most ancestral and unusual functional mode of sig-
nal transduction for this superfamily, with a duplicate
extracellular ligand binding domain TGFbsfR2 type II
homologous receptor displaying a unique extracellular
structure. Because technical limitations relative to our
model make direct functional studies difficult, we have
tested whether Cg-BMPR1 and Cg-TGFbsfR2 mole-
cules can function in the context of a vertebrate TGF-b
superfamily signalling pathway by overexpressing them
during zebrafish early embryogenesis. The molecular
nature of dorsoventral and anteroposterior patterning
in molluscs is discussed, in the context of Cg-BMPR1
and Cg-TGFbsfR2 expression patterns during C. gigas
early development.
One piece of evidence from this study suggests that
the molecular mechanisms controlling mesodermal pat-
terning across all bilateria may be conserved through a
complete, original and functional BMP ⁄ activin path-
way in lophotrochozoans, for which a singular and
promiscuous type II receptor would be the shared

cysteine knot preceding the transmembrane region
(Fig. 1A). A glycine-serine domain (GS box) did not
follow the canonical SGSGSGLP consensus sequence
but rather was encoded by a SSGCGSGPP motif. The
remaining intracellular catalytic domains are highly
conserved. Membership of Cg-BMPR1 to the BMP
type 1 receptor subfamily is clearly established by the
sequence of the L45 loop kinase domain. The
Cg-BMPR1 L45 loop sequence differs from the canon-
ical sequence (A
SDIKGT ⁄ NGSW) by only a single
residue (underlined). This motif plays an important
role across phyla in determining the specificity of type
I receptors for Smad proteins [20]. The gene and
inferred protein sequence of Cg-BMPR1 has been
lodged in the GenBank database with the accession
number AJ577293.
The second full length cDNA clone encoded a pro-
tein with an expected length of 1174 amino acids. The
inferred protein sequence bore most resemblance to
TGF-b superfamily type 2 receptors and was thus
named Cg-TGFbsfR2. Interestingly, the extracellular
domain of Cg-TGFbsfR2 is structurally divergent from
all other type II receptors that have been described
previously. Uniquely, it contains two extracellular
domains that we have named C1 and C2. C1 defines
the domain closest to the amino terminal end and C2
defines the domain closest to the cell membrane. A
comparison of the inferred amino acid sequence of the
C1 and C2 domains reveals that only the approximate

ing, respectively. Cg-ALR1 and Cg-TGFbR1 were
most closely related to activin and TGF-b type I recep-
tors, respectively.
The intron–exon organization of the genes encoding
Cg-BMPR1 and Cg-TGFbsfR2 is shown in Fig. 2C.
The serine ⁄ threonine kinase domain in both proteins is
encoded by two exons equivalent to kinase subdomains
X and XI [22]. In addition, the GS box and L45 loop
of Cg-BMPR1, as well as the C-terminal extension
of Cg-TGFbsfR2, are encoded by unique exons. The
C1 and C2 domains of the extracellular region of
Cg-TGFbsfR2 are each encoded by one or two exons.
Interestingly these two domains are separated by a
short linker encoded by its own exon (Figs 1B and
2B). Both genes show high levels of phase conservation
in comparison to other oyster TGFb superfamily re-
ceptors as well as orthologous receptors from other
species (data not shown).
Expression patterns of Cg-BMPR1 and
Cg-TGFbsfR2 in adult tissues, during early
embryogenesis and larval development
The early origin and high degree of conservation of
TGF-b signalling protein orthologues during animal
evolution from radiata to highly evolved bilateria sug-
gest that they are involved in key biological processes
common to most metazoans [23]. To gain insight into
a possible physiological role of Cg-BMPR1 and
Cg-TGFbsfR2, temporal gene expression patterns in
early larval developmental stages and adult tissues
were investigated using real time quantitative PCR

serine ⁄ threonine kinase domain. (B) The
implied amino acid sequence of Cg-
TGFbsfR2 contains a leader peptide
shown in italics. Two extracellular domains
were present in Cg-TGFbsfR2. The first (C1)
contained 10 cysteine residues whose spa-
cing was characteristic of TGFb superfamily
type II receptors. These are in bold and
underlined, and the cysteine knot is boxed.
The second extracellular domain (C2) also
contained 10 cysteines and these are also
shown in bold and the cysteine knot is
boxed. The C1 and C2 domains appeared to
be joined by a ‘linker’ sequence. Also boxed
are the transmembrane domain and the
serine ⁄ threonine kinase domain.
A. Herpin et al. BMP/activin pathway in Crassostrea gigas
FEBS Journal 272 (2005) 3424–3440 ª 2005 FEBS 3427
Daf-1 C. elegans
Crassostrea gigas C2 domain
ALK-6 E. fluviatilis C2 domain
Crassostrea gigas C1 domain
Wit D. melanogaster
Punt D. melanogaster
ActR-2b H. sapiens
ActR-2b D. rerio
ActR-2b C. auratus
BMPR-2 X. laevis
BMPR-2 H. sapiens
Daf-4 C. elegans

100
100
92
100
94
79
74
88
77
69
76
64
Daf-4 C. elegans
ActR-2b D. rerio
ALK-6 E. fluviatilis
ALK-1 E. fluviatilis
C32D5.2(actr) C. elegans
Crassostrea gigas
Cg-BMPR-1
Crassostrea gigas
Wit D. melanogaster
ALK-4 E. fluviatilis
Cg-ALR1
Crassostrea gigas
Saxophone D. melanogaster
ALK-8 D. rerio
Acvrl-1 D. rerio
ALK-1 H. sapiens
Hr-BMPR H. roretzi
Cg-Tβ

r

I
e
pyT
s
ro
t
p
e
c
e
r
I
I
e
p
yT
Activin
TGF-
Activin
BMP
BMP
TGF-
100
99
100
100
100
100

B
Fig. 2.
BMP/activin pathway in Crassostrea gigas A. Herpin et al.
3428 FEBS Journal 272 (2005) 3424–3440 ª 2005 FEBS
(1.2 Cg-BMPR1 copies for 1 of GAPDH in oocytes)
when compared to adult tissues. Cg-BMPR1 expres-
sion steadily dropped during early and larval develop-
ment. After D larvae stage and up to metamorphosis,
expression levels returned to the basal adult state
(0.1–0.15 copies relative to GAPDH). Although Cg-
TGFbsfR2 transcripts were only detected at moderate
levels, two peaks of expression were observed, the first
during gastrulation and the second just before meta-
morphosis. In all cases, Cg-TGFbsrR2 average expres-
sion level is around 10-fold lower than Cg-BMPR1
when referring to adult tissues.
Cg-BMPR1 transduces a ventralizing signal
during zebrafish mesoderm induction
To determine whether Cg-BMPR1 and Cg-TGFbsfR2
are able to function in a manner similar to their ortho-
logues, we employed the zebrafish embryo as a ‘repor-
ter organism’. Specifically, we wished to analyse how
expression of these two molecules was able to perturb
the TGFb superfamily ligand–receptor signalling path-
way during zebrafish early development. Examples of
the range and severity of the phenotypes recorded in
the following experiments are shown in Fig. 4.
Injection of 5–200 pg per embryo of full length
Cg-BMPR1 transcript produced a range of ventralized
embryos (Figs 4A and 5A). Whole mount in situ

0
C1 C2
Linker
11
TM
Domain
1
0
1
GS
Box
XXI
I
Extracellular Domain
L45 loop
TM
Domain
GS

1
TGF
β
type 1 receptor
prototype
C
Fig. 2. (A) Phylogenetic relationship of the extracellular domain of TGFb superfamily type II receptors. Sequences used for the alignment of
extracellular parts were truncated to strictly embed the 10 conserved cysteines upstream of the characteristic activin ⁄ BMP cysteine knot
CCCX
(4)
C. Split duplicated extracellular domains are reported as C1 and C2 domains from the N-terminal part of the protein. This tree was

embryo (Fig. 6C1–4).
Expression of Cg-ALR1 results in both posterior
and anterior defects in zebrafish embryos
Expression of Cg-ALR1 resulted in a dose-dependent
range of anterior defects, including in some embryos a
lack of otic vesicles (Fig. 7A,B). These defects were
always combined with mild posterior defects. In addi-
tion, a significant fraction of the Cg-ALR1 injected
embryos (between 5 and 10% depending on the
mRNA concentration) displayed a bifida chordata
phenotype in combination with severe anterior defects
(Fig. 7A,Bc). Cg-ALR1 expression resulted in an
expression of gsc in ventral regions of the embryo
(Fig. 6D3,D4). The expression domain of tbx6 was
restricted to the ventral regions and fragmented at the
gastrula stage (Fig. 6D1,D2).
When mRNA encoding a truncated version of
Cg-ALRI (DN-Cg-ALR1) was injected at a range of
2–400 pg per embryo, posterior structure defects were
observed in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 7C,D).
The tbx6 expression pattern was restricted to the
ventral side (Fig. 6E1,E2) while gsc expression in the
dorsal mesoderm was almost completely abolished
(Fig. 6E3,E4).
Cg-TGFbsfR2 transduces a dorsalizing signal
during zebrafish mesoderm induction
When injected at concentrations of between 10 and
200 pg per embryo, Cg-TGFbsfR2 induced dorsaliza-
tion in a concentration-dependent manner (Figs 4B
and 8A). Expression of tbx6 was dramatically repres-

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Fig. 3. Differential Cg-BMPRI and Cg-TGFbsfR2 expression patterns during early development (A) and in adult tissues (B) measured by real
time quantitative RT-PCR. Each value is the mean ± SE of three animals (tissues) or the mean of a pool of embryos or larva (L) from one
spawn. ME, mantle edge; DG, digestive gland; LP, labial palps; PAM, posterior adductor muscle; G, gills; He, heart; H, haemocytes. The rel-
ative level of receptor expression was calculated for one copy of the GAPDH housekeeping gene by using the following formula: N ¼
1 · 2(Ct GAPDH – Ct target).
BMP/activin pathway in Crassostrea gigas A. Herpin et al.
3430 FEBS Journal 272 (2005) 3424–3440 ª 2005 FEBS
transmembrane region. Ectopic expression of this

ventralized and showed the bifida chordata phenotype
in a manner similar to those obtained after Cg-Tolloid,
a C. gigas Tolloid-like orthologue; (A. Herpin et al.,
unpublished results), injections but with additional
anterior defects. It is not clear from the tbx6 and gsc
expression patterns observed in these embryos whether
they are dorsalized or ventralized (Fig. 9D1–4).
Ventralized embryos
24 Hpf
A
Dorsalized embryos
24 Hpf
B
Fig. 4. The range of zebrafish phenotypes observed on overexpres-
sion of TGF-b superfamily receptors. (A) Examples showing the ven-
tralized phenotypes obtained after overexpression of Cg-BMPR1.
These phenotypes ranged from the least (Vt1) to the most severe
(Vt3). (B) Examples showing the dorsalized phenotypes obtained
after overexpression of intact and truncated Cg-TGFbsfR2 and its C1
and C2 domains and truncated Cg-BMPR1. These phenotypes ran-
ged from the least (D1) to the most severe (D5).
0
25
50
75
100
2 10 50 100 200
D4
D5
D3

Proportion
of
embryos
(%)
Phenotypes
A
B
Fig. 5. Histograms showing the phenotype distribution after over-
expression of (A) Cg-BMPR1 and (B) truncated Cg-BMPR1 (DN-
Cg-BMPR1). The proportion of embryos showing an individual
phenotype is indicated by colour. The number of embryos injected
for each concentration of mRNA is indicated above each bar of
the histograms.
A. Herpin et al. BMP/activin pathway in Crassostrea gigas
FEBS Journal 272 (2005) 3424–3440 ª 2005 FEBS 3431
Discussion
We have described the cloning and functional analyses
of three TGFb superfamily type I and one type II
receptor orthologues. These are the first molecules of
this kind to be identified in lophotrochozoans. Below
we discuss some of the questions that arise from our
experiments and their analysis.
Did the evolution of TGF-b superfamily receptors
occur episodically or gradually?
Phylogenetic analysis of TGFb superfamily receptors
shows them to be clearly divided into two major clus-
ters, containing either type I or type II receptors. Each
cluster is further divided into individual clades contain-
ing TGF-b sensu strico (s.s.), activin or BMP receptors.
This observation is congruent, structurally, with the

D4D3
C3 C4
lortnoC
A1 A2
A3
A4
Fig. 6. In situ hybridization of zebrafish embryos using the ventro-lateral mesoderm marker tbx6 and the dorsal mesoderm marker goosecoid
at 80% epiboly. Two examples are shown for each group and each marker. Changes in the localization of the tbx6 expression pattern is
highlighted. DN (dominant negative) indicates that truncated receptor was overexpressed in these experiments.
BMP/activin pathway in Crassostrea gigas A. Herpin et al.
3432 FEBS Journal 272 (2005) 3424–3440 ª 2005 FEBS
among sponge (parazoan) molecules [24]. At this time,
the basic receptor repertoire may have already consis-
ted of BMP and activin type I and II receptors [24].
The type II TGFb s.s. receptor has only been identified
in deuterostomes. It may therefore have been lost
during protostome evolution or alternatively have been
acquired during the gene explosion that occurred prior
to the emergence of the chordates. Finally, detailed
phylogenetic analyses of duplicated extracellular
domains (Fig. 2A) observed in sponges and C. gigas
receptors showed them to be more closely related to
other extracellular domains than to their duplicated
counterpart, suggesting a very early duplication event,
probably before the one that gave rise to BMP and
activin subtypes.
The gene organization of TGF-b superfamily type I
and II receptors suggests evolution by exon
shuffling
Type I and II TGF-b superfamily receptor gene organ-

P3
Bc
A
DN-Cg-ALR1
0
25
50
75
100
dead
A4
A3
A2
A1
Normal
10 50 100 200 400
pg/embryo
n=177
n=250
n=207
n=197 n=218
D
Phenotypes
Proportion
of
embryos
(%)
10 50 100 200 400
0
25

displaying each phenotype after injection
with Cg-ALR1. The number of embryos
injected for each experiment is also indica-
ted. (C) A dose-dependent range of range of
posterior defects (A1-4) was observed after
overexpression of truncated Cg-ALR1
(DN-Cg-ALR1). (D) Histogram showing the
proportion of embryos displaying each
phenotype after injection with DN-Cg-ALR1.
The number of embryos injected for each
experiment is also indicated.
A. Herpin et al. BMP/activin pathway in Crassostrea gigas
FEBS Journal 272 (2005) 3424–3440 ª 2005 FEBS 3433
unfertilized oocytes (up to 10-fold more than the aver-
age level for Cg-BMPR1). This demonstrates that
newly fertilized eggs could have the aptitude to respond
to a BMP-like signal before zygotic transcription initi-
ation. After mid-blastula transition, while Cg-BMPR1
transcripts are steadily decreasing until metamorphosis,
two peaks of Cg-TFGbsfR2 mRNA occur at the time
of the two major organomorphogenetic events arising
during lophotrochozoan larval development, namely
early morphogenesis (gastrula) and metamorphosis
[27]. Such expression patterns, especially during early
embryogenic development, are consistent with that of
several serine ⁄ threonine kinase receptors [28–30] imply-
ing a way in which Cg-BMPR1 and Cg-TFGbsfR2
may be involved as morphogens for early development
in C. gigas. If we consider the whole repertoire of
TGF-b pathway components including ligands and re-

chordin loss of function mutant [35] and suggests that
the mesoderm may be partially ventralized. This hypo-
thesis was supported by analysis of tbx6 and gsc
expression by the gastrula. Expression of tbx6, which
specifies ventral-type mesoderm [36], was expanded
towards the dorsal region, showing that Cg-BMPR1
induced ventral mesoderm in zebrafish. In contrast, the
gsc expression pattern showed the dorsal mesoderm
to be more diffuse and clearly redistributed towards
Bc
D5
D4
D3
D2
D1
Normal
10 50 100 200 300
0
25
50
75
100
DN-Cg-TGFβsfR2C2
D
n=152
n=216
n=170
n=216 n=148
pg/embryo
Phenotypes

50
75
100
10 50 75 100 200
D4
D5
D3
D2
D1
Normal
DN-Cg-TGFβsfR2
B
n=183
n=362
n=300
n=225 n=364
pg/embryo
Proportion
of
embryos
(%)
10 50 100 200 300
0
25
50
75
100
D4
D5
D3

ligand concentration. Expression of truncated Cg-
BMPR1 predictably produced a range of dose-depend-
ent dorsalized phenotypes, as the dominant negative
BMP type I receptor probably sequestered BMP lig-
ands. The phenotypes associated with the abrogation
of BMP pathway signalling were comparable to those
obtained in BMP2-deficient zebrafish [37]. Moreover,
the pattern of tbx6 and gsc expression indicated that
the observed dorsalization was due to inappropriate
expansion of the dorsal mesoderm with a concomitant
reduction in the ventral mesoderm.
These observations suggest that Cg-BMPR1 is cap-
able of functioning in a similar way to its zebrafish
orthologues by promoting ventral mesoderm induction
and repressing dorsal mesoderm formation during
gastrulation.
Cg-ALRI interferes with endogenous BMP/activin
pathways during zebrafish gastrulation
Expression of full length Cg-ALRI in zebrafish resul-
ted in embryos with disruption of the anteroposterior
N
D
( gC FGT- β 2C-2R-fs )
ND
( gC FGT- β 1C-2R-fs )
gC FGT- β 2R-fs
D2
D1
D3 D4
C2

is probably due to a delay in blastopore closure during
gastrulation. Cg-ALRI expression induced gsc expres-
sion ectopically towards ventral regions while repress-
ing tbx6 expression. Expression of truncated Cg-ALRI
generally resulted in dorsalized phenotypes combined
with some anterior defects and analysis of the expres-
sion of the mesodermal markers showed repression of
both the dorsal and ventrolateral mesoderm at gastrula
stage. These observations are in agreement with those
of Thisse and colleagues following overexpression
of the activin specific competitive inhibitor, antivin
[40,41].
Expression of Cg-TGF bsfR2 in zebrafish embryos
While the structure and function of oyster type I BMP
and activin receptors appears to be conserved in com-
parison to those of other invertebrates and vertebrates,
the structure of the oyster type II receptor was more
surprising. Cg-TGFbsfR2 possess two extracellular
domains joined by a linker sequence, an observation
so far unique to type II TGFb superfamily receptors
from protostomes or deuterostomes, although it is a
characteristic shared with sponges for which, among
seven receptors cloned in Ephydatia fluviatilis, five pos-
sess a single ‘conventional’ domain, one a duplicated
and another one a triplicated extracellular domain [24].
Unfortunately, our experiments do not clarify whether
this receptor is active or not in its full length form.
Expression of both the wild type and dominant negat-
ive forms of Cg-TGFbsfR2 give rise to the same phe-
notype and modified tbx6 ⁄ gsc marker expression

Evidence for the conservation of the mechanism
of mesoderm induction in molluscs and across
bilaterians
Although Lartillot and colleagues have observed for
a number of developmental genes involved in antero-
posterior patterning that their spatial and temporal
expression pattern is highly conserved across bilate-
rians [5,45], the molecular mechanisms in lophotrocho-
zoans remain unclear. Unequal cleaving spiralian adult
mesoderm is derived from two split territories. The
endomesoderm arises from the fourth quartet micro-
mere of the D quadrant, the mesentoblast [46]; subse-
quently, the ectomesoderm is derived from the second
and ⁄ or third quartets of micromeres (reviewed in [47]).
For the first time in a lophotrochozoan we have shown
that two key members of the BMP pathway
Cg-BMPR1 and the recently characterized Cg-Tolloid
(A. Herpin et al. unpublished results) are present and
expressed as a synexpression group throughout early
development as well as in adult tissues of C. gigas.
Moreover, using the zebrafish embryo as a reporter
system we have demonstrated that these two pathway
components, as well as the activin-like type I receptor
Cg-ALRI, are able to regulate mesoderm induction
during gastrulation and early development stages,
despite the considerable evolutionary distance between
spiralians and chordates. The results of these func-
tional studies when combined with our expression ana-
lyses and phylogenetic data, would suggest a conserved
mechanism for both ectomesoderm and mesendoderm

ing of cDNA, genomic and BAC libraries (10 times
coverage) using different probes, failed to isolate any
new type I or II receptors. Cg-TGFbsfR2 would repre-
sent the only (TGF-b) type II receptor encoded within
the C. gigas genome.
Experimental procedures
Cloning and sequencing of TGFb superfamily
receptor cDNAs
We previously reported the cloning of two TGF-b super-
family receptors, a type I activin-like receptor (Cg- ALR1)
[17] as well as another type I TGF-b s.s. receptor
(Cg-TGFbRI) from C. gigas [18]. cDNAs encoding novel
type I receptors and one type II receptor were cloned from
C. gigas in an identical manner. Gene-specific primers were
then used to isolate a full length cDNA from an oyster
mantle edge library. The resulting clones were designated
Cg-BMPR1 and Cg-TGFbsfR2.
Phylogenetic analysis
Sequences encoding TGF b superfamily receptor proteins
were chosen to represent a range of protostomes and deut-
erostomes in phylogenetic analyses. Preference was given to
sequences for which functional data were available. The
sequences were aligned using clustal x version 1.81 and
by manual inspection. Alignments used for phylogenetic
relationships of the cytoplasmic domain were carried out,
making use of the whole receptor intracellular part amputa-
ted of its highly variable C-terminal domain after the
terminal conserved arginine of the cytoplasmic serine ⁄
threonine kinase domain. Sequences for phylogenetic rela-
tionships of the extracellular part were truncated to strictly

Because technical limitations relative to oyster embryos and
larvae make whole-mount in situ hybridizations less reliable
than RT-PCR [17], quantitative real time RT-PCR was the
best alternative. The larval developmental stage pattern
and tissue distribution of Cg-BMPR1 and Cg-TGFbsfR2
mRNA was investigated by quantitative RT-PCR using an i-
Cycler (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA). Total RNA from var-
ious developmental stages and adult tissues was isolated
using Tri-Reagent (Sigma-Aldrich, Munich, Germany)
according to the manufacturer’s instructions. After treatment
for 20 min at 37 °C with 1 U of DNase I (Sigma) to prevent
genomic DNA contamination, 1 lg of total RNA was
reversed transcribed using 1 lg of random hexanucleotide
primers (Promega, Madison, WI, USA), 0.5 mm dNTPs and
200 U M-MLV reverse transcriptase (Promega) at 37 °C for
1 h in the appropriate buffer. The reaction was stopped by
incubation at 70 °C for 10 min. iQ
TM
SYBR Green supermix
PCR kit (Bio-Rad) was used for real time monitoring of
amplification (5 ng of template cDNA, 40 cycles: 95 °C for
15 s, 60 °C for 15 s) with 250 nm of the following primers:
QsBMPR1, 5¢-AGCTTGCCCCCAACCTC-3¢; QaBMPR1,
5¢-ATGGTCTCTGCGGGTTGA-3¢; QsTGFbsfR2, 5¢-GCC
AGATCCCAAATTAGTGC-3¢; QaTGFbsfR2, 5¢-TGAA
ACCACAGCCTCAGTTG-3¢, where ‘s’ and ‘a’ indicate
sense and antisense primers, respectively. Accurate amplifica-
tion of the target amplicon was checked by performing melt-
A. Herpin et al. BMP/activin pathway in Crassostrea gigas
FEBS Journal 272 (2005) 3424–3440 ª 2005 FEBS 3437

up- or downstream of the sequence encoding the transmem-
brane domain. Capped synthetic mRNAs encoding both
full length and truncated proteins were transcribed in vitro
using the Stratagene mCAP RNA capping kit and linea-
rized plasmids as templates. The capped mRNAs were dis-
solved in RNAse-free 0.2 m KCl containing 0.5% (w ⁄ v)
phenol red to monitor injection. mRNA or plasmid DNA
was injected into the cytoplasm of a single-cell embryo.
After injection, embryos were transferred into 24-well tissue
culture plates containing Holtfreter’s solution (5–7 embryos
per well), incubated at 28 °C for up to 24 h and then exam-
ined by microscopy for phenotype analysis. Unfertilized
eggs were removed after 4 h. Alternatively, embryos were
fixed for in situ hybridization at 80% epiboly. Uninjected
and control embryos injected with 0.2 m KCl were analysed
under the same conditions.
Whole-mount in situ hybridization
Antisense probes were transcribed in vitro and labelled
using digoxigenin-labelled UTP (Roche, Indianapolis, IN,
USA). The anteroaxial goosecoid mesodermal marker [52],
and the ventrolateral tbx6 mesodermal marker [36] were
used as probes. Whole-mount staining of embryos was
performed as described by Rissi et al. [53].
Acknowledgements
This work was performed with the aid of grants from
the Norwegian Research Council, Basse-Normandie
Regional Council, France, and the French-Norwegian
Foundation for Scientific, Technical and Industrial
Research. We would like to acknowledge the help pro-
vided by the Zebrafish facility technical staff at the

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