The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀
in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy฀
Johannesburg฀and฀São฀Paulo
Martin฀J฀Murray
HSRC฀
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metropolises฀as฀key฀command฀and฀control฀centres฀within฀the฀capitalist฀world฀economy.฀
A฀central฀axiom฀of฀this฀innovative฀theoretical฀framework฀is฀the฀claim฀that฀the฀spatial฀
dispersal฀of฀giant฀‘multi-national’฀corporations฀over฀considerable฀distances฀requires฀a฀
parallel฀territorial฀concentration฀of฀‘command฀and฀control’฀functions฀at฀the฀apex฀of฀
the฀global฀urban฀hierarchy.฀Yet฀by฀privileging฀the฀functional฀specialisations฀of฀large฀
metropolitan฀regions฀within฀the฀world฀economy,฀the฀‘global฀cities’฀approach฀restricts฀
the฀kinds฀of฀questions฀that฀can฀be฀legitimately฀addressed฀within฀its฀conceptual฀frame฀
of฀reference.฀In฀particular,฀by฀narrowing฀the฀scope฀of฀research฀to฀the฀functional฀roles฀
of฀cities฀within฀the฀world฀economy,฀the฀‘global฀cities’฀paradigm฀tends฀to฀downplay฀
the฀evolving฀spatial฀form฀of฀ cities฀that฀aspire฀to฀‘world-class’฀ status.฀In฀contrast,฀a฀
growing฀ number฀ of฀ scholars฀ have฀ focused฀ instead฀ on฀ the฀ changing฀ morphological฀
characteristics฀of฀urban฀landscapes,฀and,฀in฀particular,฀on฀the฀use,฀management,฀and฀
regulation฀of฀urban฀space.฀By฀emphasising฀such฀spatial฀features฀as฀unfettered฀urban฀
sprawl,฀the฀urbanisation฀of฀the฀periphery,฀the฀proliferation฀of฀‘edge฀cities’,฀and฀the฀
emergence฀of฀a฀new฀‘fortification฀aesthetic’฀that฀has฀accompanied฀the฀construction฀
of฀such฀post-public฀places฀as฀festival฀marketplaces,฀citadel฀office฀complexes,฀enclosed฀
shopping฀malls,฀and฀gated฀residential฀communities,฀these฀theorists฀of฀urban฀life฀have฀
drawn฀attention฀to฀the฀evolving฀patterns฀of฀spatial฀restructuring฀association฀with฀a฀
1
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Martin฀J฀Murray
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The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy
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distinctive฀kind฀of฀polynucleated฀and฀fragmented฀city-form,฀one฀which฀some฀scholars฀
have฀called฀‘postmodern฀urbanism’.฀
At฀the฀risk฀of฀oversimplification,฀it฀is฀possible฀to฀identity฀five฀features฀associated฀
with฀‘post-modern฀urbanism’.฀While฀these฀do฀not฀exhaust฀the฀possible฀characteristics฀
of฀ this฀ particular฀ kind฀ of฀ urbanity,฀ they฀ do฀ constitute฀ its฀ central฀ elements.฀
Concentrating฀ on฀ the฀ extent฀ to฀ which฀ these฀ characteristic฀ features฀ of฀ postmodern฀

sites฀for฀managing฀worldwide฀trade฀and฀international฀banking฀and฀finance,฀emergent฀
‘global฀cities’฀now฀function฀as฀‘highly฀concentrated฀command฀[and฀control]฀points฀in฀
the฀organisation฀of฀the฀world฀economy’฀and฀as฀key฀locations฀for฀transnational฀corporate฀
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Martin฀J฀Murray
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The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy
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head฀ offices.
2
฀ While฀ globalisation฀ has฀ affected฀ all฀ kinds฀ of฀ geographical฀ localities฀
in฀ a฀ variety฀ of฀ ways,฀ it฀ assumes฀ particular฀ significance฀ in฀ those฀ key฀ urban฀ centres฀
that฀scholars฀ have฀labelled฀‘global’฀ or฀‘world฀cities’.฀In฀short,฀globalisation฀precedes฀
and฀ largely฀ determines฀ urban฀ spatial฀ and฀ sociocultural฀ restructuring,฀ inexorably฀
transforming฀emergent฀global฀cities฀by฀disconnecting฀them฀from฀their฀local฀ties.
3
In฀ its฀ original฀ formulation,฀ the฀ ‘global฀ cities’฀ thesis฀ laid฀ particular฀ stress฀ on฀ the฀
historically฀ specific฀ functions฀ of฀ London,฀ New฀ York฀ and฀ Tokyo฀ at฀ the฀ apex฀ of฀
the฀ world-scale฀ urban฀ hierarchy.฀ At฀ the฀ outset,฀ discussion฀ focused฀ on฀ clarifying฀
terminological฀ disputes฀ (‘world’฀ versus฀ ‘global’฀ cities),฀ refining฀ initial฀ definitions,฀
and฀ postulating฀ about฀ which฀ cities฀ might฀ be฀ included฀ under฀ the฀ rubric฀ of฀ ‘global฀
cities’฀and฀what฀criteria฀might฀be฀used฀to฀determine฀their฀rank฀order.฀Over฀time,฀the฀
‘global฀cities’฀debate฀has฀moved฀away฀from฀its฀relatively฀narrow฀focus฀on฀a฀few฀leading฀
urban฀centres฀to฀a฀much฀more฀nuanced,฀sophisticated฀and฀broader฀theorisation฀of฀the฀
changing฀functions฀of฀cities฀in฀a฀globalising฀world฀economy฀increasingly฀dominated฀
by฀informationalised฀economic฀activities฀(Castells฀1996;฀Lo฀&฀Yeung฀1998;฀Marcuse฀
&฀Van฀Kempen฀2000a;฀Sassen฀2000a,฀2000c).฀Taken฀as฀a฀whole,฀the฀‘global฀cities’฀
model฀ –฀with฀its฀ particular฀ stress฀on฀the฀evolving฀ network฀of฀ interconnected฀urban฀
centres฀–฀has฀sparked฀a฀great฀deal฀of฀substantive฀research฀that฀has฀greatly฀advanced฀our฀
understanding฀of฀the฀place฀and฀function฀of฀certain฀strategically฀located฀cities฀in฀the฀

characteristics฀ of฀ urban฀ landscapes฀ and,฀ in฀ particular,฀ on฀ the฀ use,฀ management฀ and฀
regulation฀of฀city฀space฀(Boyer฀1998;฀Davis฀1985;฀Dear฀2000;฀Dear฀&฀Flusty฀1998;฀Ellin฀
1996;฀Ghirado฀1991;฀Harvey฀1989;฀Hannigan฀1998;฀Jencks฀1993;฀Soja฀1989;฀Soja฀1992;฀
Sorkin฀1992;฀Zukin฀1998).฀In฀looking฀at฀the฀fragmentation฀of฀the฀urban฀realm฀into฀what฀
David฀Harvey฀calls฀‘a฀patchwork฀quilt฀of฀islands฀of฀relative฀affluence฀struggling฀to฀secure฀
themselves฀in฀a฀sea฀of฀spreading฀decay’฀(Harvey฀2000:฀152),฀these฀scholars฀have฀drawn฀our฀
attention฀to฀the฀spatiality฀of฀contemporary฀cities.฀By฀highlighting฀such฀spatial฀features฀as฀
‘edge฀cities’,฀gated฀residential฀communities฀and฀other฀privatopias,฀fortified฀office฀citadels,฀
downtown฀ renaissance฀ zones,฀festival฀ marketplaces฀ and฀ other฀ enclosed฀ shopping฀ mall฀
extravaganzas฀as฀they฀appear฀in฀cities฀around฀the฀world,฀these฀urban฀theorists฀have฀drawn฀
our฀attention฀to฀the฀evolving฀patterns฀of฀spatial฀restructuring฀associated฀with฀a฀distinctive฀
kind฀of฀polynucleated฀and฀fragmented฀city฀form,฀one฀which฀some฀scholars฀have฀called฀
‘postmodern฀urbanism’.
6฀
Unlike฀the฀ ‘global฀cities’฀paradigm฀that฀ takes฀ urban฀ political฀
economy฀as฀its฀point฀of฀departure,฀the฀theorists฀of฀‘postmodern฀urbanism’฀look฀upon฀
the฀cityscape฀as฀a฀contested฀terrain,฀where฀spatial฀politics฀involve฀struggles฀over฀the฀use฀
of฀urban฀space,฀particularly฀in฀regard฀to฀who฀belongs฀where฀and฀with฀what฀entitlements฀
or฀citizenship฀rights฀(Borden,฀Kerr,฀Rendell฀&฀Pivaro฀2001;฀Dovey฀1999;฀Harvey฀2000;฀
Holston฀1999;฀Leach฀2002;฀Sandercock฀1998;฀Westwood฀&฀Williams฀1997).
As฀ a฀ distinct฀ urban฀ form,฀ postmodern฀ urbanism฀ expresses฀ the฀ confluence฀ of฀ a฀
multiplicity฀ of฀ macrosocial฀ trends,฀ including฀ deindustrialisation฀ of฀ the฀ metropolis฀
(where฀post-Fordist฀‘flexible฀specialisation’฀has฀replaced฀Fordist฀mass฀production฀as฀
the฀ main฀engine฀of฀economic฀growth),฀the฀widespread฀middle-class฀abandonment฀
of฀urban฀residence฀ coupled฀with฀rapid฀suburban฀sprawl,฀the฀devaluation฀of฀public฀
space฀(parks,฀plazas,฀streetscapes,฀sidewalks,฀collective฀modes฀of฀transport฀and฀easily฀
accessible฀ places฀ of฀ entertainment),฀ and฀ an฀ awestruck฀ love฀ affair฀ with฀ an฀ ‘inward-
looking’฀ architectural฀ style฀ that฀ ‘turns฀ its฀ back฀ on’฀ the฀ surrounding฀ cityscape.฀
Driven฀by฀the฀relentless฀pressures฀of฀global฀competition฀in฀all฀its฀guises,฀postmodern฀
urbanism฀ conforms฀ to฀ an฀ inner฀ logic฀ of฀ spatial฀ partitioning฀ that฀ privileges฀ and฀

stigmatised)฀as฀different,฀threatening฀and฀unwanted฀(Caldeira฀1996b;฀Caldeira฀2000;฀
Davis฀1992;฀Merrifield฀&฀Swyngedouw฀1997).฀
Space฀matters:฀post-modern฀urbanism฀and฀
the฀฀‘Los฀Angeles฀school’
The฀urban฀theorist฀Jan฀Nijman฀has฀proposed฀the฀notion฀of฀‘paradigmatic฀city’฀as฀a฀
heuristic฀device฀that฀can฀assist฀us฀in฀divining฀future฀trends฀in฀urban฀restructuring.฀
The฀ ‘paradigmatic฀city’฀may฀be฀defined฀as฀the฀exemplary฀metropolis฀that฀displays฀
more฀clearly฀than฀other฀urban฀sites฀the฀distinguishing฀features฀and฀general฀trends฀that฀
are฀symptomatic฀of฀broader฀sociogeographical฀transformations฀of฀cities฀taking฀place฀
on฀a฀world฀scale.฀In฀short,฀it฀anticipates,฀in฀a฀genuinely฀prescient฀way,฀evolving฀and฀
The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy
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Martin฀J฀Murray
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The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy
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unfolding฀patterns฀of฀global฀urbanisation.฀Understood฀in฀this฀way,฀the฀‘paradigmatic฀
city’฀serves฀as฀an฀ideal-typical฀model,฀a฀living฀laboratory฀for฀analysis฀and฀a฀prototype฀
for฀investigating฀trends฀that฀are฀not฀as฀yet฀easily฀discernible฀ in฀other฀cities.฀ In฀the฀
1920s฀and฀1930s,฀the฀so-called฀‘Chicago฀School’฀of฀urban฀studies฀(under฀the฀guiding฀
hand฀ of฀ Robert฀ Park,฀ Ernest฀ Burgess฀ and฀ Louis฀ Wirth,฀ in฀ particular)฀ defined฀ an฀
agenda฀for฀scholarly฀research฀on฀metropolitan฀areas฀that฀achieved฀undeniable฀success฀
as฀a฀workable฀paradigm.฀Taking฀a฀human฀ecology฀approach฀as฀their฀analytic฀point฀of฀
departure,฀the฀‘Chicago฀School’฀urbanists฀used฀the฀model฀of฀concentric฀rings฀to฀direct฀
attention฀to฀such฀problem฀areas฀as฀land฀use฀patterns,฀urban฀lifestyles,฀ethnic฀rivalries฀
and฀the฀effects฀of฀urban฀environment฀on฀human฀behaviour.฀Despite฀challenges฀from฀
alternative฀perspectives,฀the฀Chicago฀School฀dominated฀the฀field฀of฀urban฀studies฀for฀
most฀of฀the฀twentieth฀century฀(Dear฀&฀Flusty฀1997;฀Nijman฀2000).
Beginning฀ in฀ the฀ 1980s,฀ a฀ group฀ of฀ urban฀ scholars฀ began฀ to฀ challenge฀ the฀
conventional฀wisdom฀that฀the฀evolving฀urban฀landscape฀of฀the฀greater฀Los฀Angeles฀

The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy
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2000;฀Dymski฀&฀Veitch฀1996;฀Flusty฀1994;฀Flusty฀1997;฀Jencks฀1996;฀Keil฀1990;฀
Keil฀1994;฀Keil฀1998;฀Krim฀1992;฀Scott฀&฀Soja฀1996;฀Soja฀1996;฀Soja฀1999;฀Soja฀
2000;฀Storper฀1999).
The฀dangers฀of฀facile฀generalisations฀
Just฀like฀the฀‘global฀cities’฀approach฀(with฀its฀focus฀on฀global฀urban฀hierarchies),฀the฀
LA฀School฀–฀with฀its฀stress฀on฀fragmentation฀and฀peripheral฀urbanisation,฀cultural฀
hybridisation฀and฀decentred฀suburban฀sprawl฀–฀has฀significantly฀reshaped฀the฀field฀
of฀urban฀studies.฀Nevertheless,฀whether฀or฀not฀the฀LA฀School฀offers฀a฀new฀kind฀of฀
path฀breaking฀analysis฀for฀studying฀urban฀developments฀around฀the฀world฀has฀been฀
the฀subject฀of฀intense฀debate.
9
฀To฀be฀sure,฀uncritically฀applying฀the฀insights฀derived฀
from฀the฀LA฀School฀and฀postmodern฀urbanism฀to฀all฀cities฀around฀the฀world฀may฀be฀
not฀only฀overextending฀what฀this฀conceptual฀framework฀can฀reasonably฀be฀expected฀
to฀account฀for,฀but฀also฀unnecessarily฀conflating฀divergent฀processes฀of฀‘city฀building’฀
linked฀to฀historically฀specific฀social฀and฀material฀circumstances,฀and฀flattening฀out฀the฀
rich฀diversity฀of฀what฀constitutes฀the฀urban฀experience.฀Indeed,฀the฀term฀‘postmodern฀
urbanism’฀ has฀ been฀ invoked฀ in฀ analyses฀ of฀ cities฀ that฀ are฀ as฀ radically฀ different฀ as฀
Kuala฀Lumpur,฀Las฀Vegas,฀Los฀Angeles,฀Phoenix฀and฀Buenos฀Aires.฀To฀avoid฀such฀
homogenising฀tendencies฀that฀collapse฀a฀variety฀of฀heterogeneous฀experiences฀arising฀
from฀very฀different฀historical฀processes,฀it฀is฀necessary฀to฀begin฀with฀understanding฀
that฀the฀revanchist฀features฀of฀ postmodern฀ urbanism฀are฀never฀simply฀imposed,฀as฀
part-and-parcel฀of฀the฀current฀phase฀ of฀globalisation,฀on฀unsuspecting฀cities฀ ‘from฀
above’฀ and฀ ‘from฀ outside’฀ without฀ the฀ active฀ participation฀ of฀ local฀ agents฀ on฀ the฀
ground.฀What฀postmodern฀urbanism฀really฀means฀(i.e.฀the฀historically฀specific฀form฀
that฀it฀takes฀in฀particular฀cities)฀must฀be฀teased฀out฀on฀the฀basis฀of฀the฀analysis฀of฀
specific฀ historical฀ and฀ social฀ circumstances,฀ for฀ ‘city฀ building’฀ is฀ everywhere฀ the฀
product฀ of฀ the฀ historically฀ specific฀ intersection฀ of฀ global฀ processes,฀ trends฀ and฀

417).
Expressed฀succinctly,฀a฀significant฀number฀of฀urban฀theorists฀have฀reacted฀against฀
the฀tendency฀in฀both฀the฀‘global฀ cities’฀ and฀LA฀School฀to฀let฀a฀ city฀ (whether฀it฀is฀
London,฀New฀York,฀Tokyo฀or฀ Los฀ Angeles)฀become฀a฀theory฀(Crang฀2001:฀ 665–
669).฀There฀is฀an฀inherent฀danger฀of฀assuming฀uni-directional,฀generic฀patterns฀of฀
urban฀transformation฀from฀such฀‘paradigmatic’฀cities.฀One฀must฀be฀sensitive฀to฀the฀
warning฀that฀‘evocation฀cannot฀always฀be฀a฀substitute฀for฀systematic฀analysis’฀(Amin฀
&฀ Thrift฀2002;฀Thrift฀1999).฀Put฀in฀another฀way,฀what฀is฀needed฀are฀not฀ready-
made,฀ deductive฀ urban฀ theories฀ that฀ employ฀ ‘covering฀ laws’฀ to฀ generalise฀ across฀
cases,฀but฀a฀kind฀of฀genuine฀theoretical฀openness฀and฀flexibility฀that฀seeks฀through฀
comparison฀and฀contrast฀to฀account฀for฀the฀historical-spatial฀specificity฀of฀particular฀
cities.฀In฀a฀similar฀vein,฀Jennifer฀Robinson฀has฀raised฀strong฀objections฀to฀what฀she฀
refers฀to฀as฀those฀‘fashionable฀approaches’฀in฀the฀field฀of฀urban฀studies฀–฀she฀specifies฀
the฀‘global฀cities’฀approach,฀but฀her฀point฀would฀hold฀true฀for฀the฀LA฀School฀as฀well฀
–฀that฀presume฀to฀ground฀‘urban฀theory’฀on฀the฀experiences฀and฀histories฀of฀western฀
cities.฀In฀calling฀for฀a฀broadening฀of฀the฀scope฀of฀inquiry฀that฀looks฀at฀cities฀‘off฀the฀
map’,฀ she฀ advocates฀ the฀ creation฀ of฀ genuinely฀ ‘cosmopolitan,฀ postcolonial฀ urban฀
studies’฀that฀focus฀on฀‘understanding฀the฀diversity฀of฀urban฀experiences’฀in฀ordinary฀
cities฀ located฀ around฀ the฀ globe฀ (Dick฀ &฀ Rimmer฀ 1998;฀ Grant฀ &฀ Nijman฀ 2002;฀
Robinson฀2002).
A฀useful฀starting฀point฀for฀building฀this฀cosmopolitan,฀postcolonial฀approach฀to฀
urban฀studies฀might฀be฀to฀identify฀and฀highlight฀some฀of฀the฀more฀visible฀features฀
of฀postmodern฀urbanism฀that฀have฀materialised฀in฀many฀cities฀in฀the฀global฀north฀
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Martin฀J฀Murray
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The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy
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and฀south.฀There฀is฀a฀growing฀body฀of฀scholarly฀work฀warning฀of฀the฀expansion฀of฀
‘fortified’,฀authoritarian฀or฀revanchist฀urban฀landscapes,฀characterised฀by฀the฀partition฀

São฀Paulo฀as฀exemplars฀in฀extremis฀The฀bulk฀of฀the฀research฀conducted฀by฀
the฀practitioners฀of฀postmodern฀urbanism฀has฀been฀confined฀to฀case฀studies฀of฀the฀
greater฀Los฀Angeles฀metropolitan฀region,฀and฀there฀are฀few฀studies฀that฀actually฀apply฀
its฀ ambitious฀ agenda฀ for฀ research฀ to฀ other฀ urban฀ areas.฀ While฀ some฀ scholars฀ have฀
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Martin฀J฀Murray
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The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy
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subjected฀‘late฀developing’฀cities฀like฀Miami฀and฀Las฀Vegas฀to฀the฀scrutinising฀lens฀of฀
postmodern฀urbanism,฀very฀few฀efforts฀have฀been฀made฀to฀extend฀the฀comparative฀
analysis฀of฀evolving฀urban฀forms฀to฀metropolitan฀playing฀fields฀outside฀the฀core฀areas฀
of฀ the฀ world฀ economy.
12
฀ In฀ acknowledging฀ these฀ deficiencies,฀ Michael฀ Dear฀ and฀
Steven฀Flusty฀have฀proposed฀that฀‘the฀validity฀and฀potential฀of฀the฀[LA]฀School฀will฀
only฀be฀decided฀after฀extensive฀comparative฀analysis฀based฀in฀other฀metropolitan฀areas฀
around฀the฀world’฀(Dear฀&฀Flusty฀1998:฀52).฀Widening฀our฀field฀of฀vision฀to฀include฀
processes฀of฀urbanisation฀ that฀are฀taking฀place฀in฀the฀shadows฀of฀North฀American฀
and฀European฀cosmopolitan฀worlds฀(cities฀‘off฀the฀map’,฀as฀Robinson฀metaphorically฀
puts฀it)฀enables฀us฀to฀grasp฀more฀fully฀evolving฀‘fields฀of฀force’฀that฀have฀shaped,฀and฀
are฀shaping,฀urban฀landscapes฀outside฀ the฀geographical฀circuits฀of฀such฀ ‘globalised฀
cities’฀ as฀ London,฀ New฀ York,฀ Tokyo,฀ Frankfurt,฀ Paris,฀ Berlin,฀ Chicago,฀ and฀ Los฀
Angeles.
13
฀Looking฀at฀the฀spatial฀dynamics฀of฀two฀aspirant฀world฀class฀cities฀–฀São฀
Paulo฀and฀Johannesburg฀–฀can฀help฀to฀shed฀ light฀ on฀ the฀more฀sinister,฀dystopian฀
aspects฀of฀postmodern฀urbanism฀as฀they฀evolve฀in฀urban฀social฀orders฀deeply฀divided฀
along฀ class,฀ race,฀ and฀ possibly฀ ethno-religious฀ lines.฀ If฀ Los฀ Angeles฀ represents฀ the฀
paradigmatic฀ exemplar฀of฀postmodern฀urbanism,฀then฀the฀sprawling฀metropolitan฀

both฀metropolitan฀regions฀have฀undergone฀similar฀processes฀of฀industrial฀restructuring฀
which฀have฀resulted฀in฀plant฀closures฀and฀the฀spatial฀dispersal฀of฀manufacturing฀sites,฀
the฀haemorrhage฀of฀jobs,฀labour฀redundancies,฀the฀‘informalisation’฀of฀labour฀markets฀
and฀the฀steady฀influx฀of฀new฀immigrants.฀Their฀transformation,฀from฀concentrated฀
centres฀ of฀ industry฀ and฀ manufacturing฀ into฀ service-oriented฀ sites฀ for฀ business฀ and฀
finance,฀represents฀instances฀of฀similar฀processes฀of฀world-historical฀trends฀that฀have฀
reshaped฀metropolitan฀regions฀over฀the฀past฀several฀decades.
17
Like฀ the฀ view฀ through฀ a฀ kaleidoscope,฀ postmodern฀ urbanism฀ assumes฀ different฀
shapes฀and฀hues฀at฀different฀times฀and฀places,฀depending฀on฀the฀angle฀of฀vision฀and฀
the฀quality฀of฀light.฀At฀the฀risk฀of฀oversimplification,฀it฀is฀possible฀to฀identify฀five฀key฀
features฀of฀postmodern฀urbanism฀that฀São฀Paulo฀and฀Johannesburg฀share฀in฀common.฀
While฀the฀dynamics฀of฀postmodern฀urbanism฀cannot฀be฀simply฀reduced฀to฀these฀static฀
elements,฀they฀nevertheless฀constitute฀its฀core฀elements.฀First,฀like฀other฀large฀cities฀
where฀the฀centrifugal฀forces฀of฀decentralisation,฀deindustrialisation฀and฀uncontrolled฀
suburban฀sprawl฀have฀reconfigured฀the฀urban฀landscape,฀São฀Paulo฀and฀Johannesburg฀
have฀ experienced฀ similar฀ patterns฀ of฀ spatial฀ fragmentation฀ and฀ disaggregation,฀ or฀
what฀Stephen฀Graham฀has฀called฀the฀‘spectre฀of฀the฀splintering฀metropolis’฀(Graham฀
2001:฀365–368).฀In฀a฀full฀reversal฀of฀modernist-inspired฀city฀building,฀this฀process฀
of฀ peripheral฀ urbanisation,฀ or฀ the฀ ‘urbanisation฀ of฀ suburbia’,฀ involves฀ the฀ radical฀
inversion฀of฀the฀conventional฀relationship฀between฀concentrated฀urban฀core฀and฀low-
density฀suburban฀periphery,฀where฀central-place฀functions฀(corporate฀office฀buildings,฀
high-end฀shopping฀and฀commerce,฀and฀‘world-class’฀entertainment)฀are฀increasingly฀
dispersed฀amongst฀rival฀centres฀(or฀‘edge฀cities’).฀Second,฀the฀build฀environment฀in฀
São฀ Paulo฀ and฀ Johannesburg฀ consists฀ of฀ fortified฀ enclaves฀ with฀ distinctive฀ design฀
motifs฀that฀reflect฀‘siege฀architecture’.฀An฀erstwhile฀alliance฀of฀builders,฀architects฀and฀
property฀developers฀ have฀ come฀ together฀ to฀ inaugurate฀new฀ building฀types:฀ citadel฀
office฀complexes,฀enclosed฀shopping฀ malls฀and฀security฀ estates฀ scattered฀ across฀the฀
urban฀landscape.฀Third,฀the฀patterns฀of฀urban฀living฀in฀São฀Paulo฀and฀Johannesburg฀
correspond฀to฀what฀might฀be฀called฀precarious฀urbanisation,฀where฀extreme฀disparities฀

particular฀cities.฀Investigating฀new฀kinds฀of฀urbanity฀on฀the฀geopolitical฀margins฀of฀
the฀world฀economy฀allows฀ us฀ to฀explore฀how฀the฀ spatial฀dynamics฀of฀postmodern฀
urbanism฀ both฀reproduce฀social฀inequalities฀but฀also฀legitimate฀class฀privilege฀ and฀
various฀kinds฀of฀social฀exclusion.฀The฀distinctive฀patterns฀of฀spatial฀segregation฀and฀
social฀exclusion฀that฀have฀evolved฀in฀Johannesburg฀and฀São฀Paulo฀do฀not฀make฀these฀
city฀ spaces฀ unique,฀ but฀ they฀ do฀ represent฀ exaggerated฀ examples฀ of฀ the฀ dystopian฀
dimensions฀of฀postmodern฀urbanism.
The฀spectre฀of฀the฀splintering฀metropolis
Albeit฀ in฀ different฀ ways,฀ the฀ historical฀ legacies฀ of฀ their฀ country’s฀ colonial฀ and฀
Eurocentric฀ heritage฀ are฀ deeply฀ embedded฀ in฀ the฀ urban฀ landscapes฀ of฀ both฀
Johannesburg฀ and฀ São฀ Paulo.
19
฀ In฀ both฀ places,฀ ‘city฀ building’฀ has฀ long฀ reflected฀
the฀ interests฀ and฀ preoccupations฀ of฀ settler฀ elites฀ wanting฀ to฀ inscribe฀ the฀ symbols฀
of฀ their฀ accumulated฀ power฀ in฀ the฀ built฀ environment฀ of฀ the฀ urban฀ fabric.฀ City-
builders,฀including฀property฀developers,฀real฀estate฀agencies,฀architects฀and฀designers,฀
urban฀ planners,฀ civil฀ engineers฀ and฀ municipal฀ authorities฀ in฀ both฀ São฀ Paulo฀ and฀
Johannesburg฀ have฀ borrowed,฀ copied฀ and฀ even฀ blatantly฀ plagiarised฀ architectural฀
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Martin฀J฀Murray
12
styles,฀ design฀ features฀ and฀ ideas฀ from฀ leading฀ global฀ cities฀ in฀ Europe฀ and฀ North฀
America,฀ imposing฀ these฀ features฀ on฀ their฀ own฀ cityscapes฀ in฀ ways฀ that฀ fit฀ their฀
own฀ peculiar฀ needs฀ and฀ idiosyncratic฀ interests.฀ This฀ combination฀ of฀ mimicry,฀
appropriation฀and฀adaptation฀has฀produced฀contemporary฀urban฀landscapes฀in฀São฀
Paulo฀and฀Johannesburg฀that฀display฀remarkably฀similar฀features.
20
Unlike฀aspirant฀‘world-class’฀cities฀where฀structural฀or฀administrative฀impediments฀
have฀placed฀limits฀on฀uncontrolled฀urban฀sprawl,฀São฀Paulo฀and฀Johannesburg฀have฀
experienced฀ extensive฀ growth฀ and฀ development฀ where฀ the฀ city฀ boundaries฀ have฀

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Martin฀J฀Murray
14
15
comprehensive฀urban฀planning฀ in฀São฀Paulo฀ were฀always฀too฀ little,฀too฀late.
21
฀São฀
Paulo’s฀existing฀planning฀regulations฀date฀back฀to฀1972,฀when฀the฀city฀had฀about฀4.5฀
million฀inhabitants,฀well฀less฀than฀half฀the฀current฀population.฀The฀archaic฀zoning฀
regulations฀ have฀ allowed฀ urban฀ anarchy฀ to฀ rein฀ supreme฀ as฀ once฀ quiet฀ residential฀
streets฀have฀become฀commercial฀hubs฀without฀any฀consideration฀of฀traffic฀congestion฀
(Smith฀2003).฀Despite฀its฀humble฀colonial฀origins,฀the฀competitive฀advantages฀of฀São฀
Paulo฀became฀readily฀apparent฀during฀the฀regional฀coffee฀boom฀of฀the฀late฀nineteenth฀
century฀when฀the฀construction฀of฀railroads฀by฀British฀companies฀enabled฀the฀city฀to฀
become฀the฀chief฀point฀of฀trans-shipment฀for฀ the฀ lucrative฀ new฀cash฀crop.฀Profits฀
from฀the฀coffee฀trade฀were฀channeled฀ into฀ investments฀in฀industry฀and฀real฀estate฀
development,฀ transforming฀ São฀ Paulo฀ overnight฀ into฀ a฀ booming฀ commercial฀ and฀
manufacturing฀centre.฀
By฀the฀early฀twentieth฀century,฀São฀Paulo฀had฀become฀a฀virtual฀testing฀ground฀for฀
the฀conjoined฀effects฀of฀diversity฀and฀rapid฀expansion,฀absorbing฀more฀than฀a฀million฀
immigrants฀from฀abroad,฀mainly฀from฀southern฀Europe฀and฀Japan.฀The฀commercial-
industrial฀dominance฀of฀São฀Paulo฀was฀secured฀in฀the฀1930s,฀after฀President฀Vargas฀
initiated฀an฀ambitious฀programme฀of฀import-substitution฀industrialisation.฀During฀
the฀ late฀ 1950s฀ and฀ early฀ 1960s,฀ under฀ the฀ umbrella฀ of฀ the฀ 1956฀ Plano฀ de฀ Metas฀
(Development฀ Plan),฀ the฀ massive฀ injection฀ of฀ overseas฀ capital,฀ primarily฀ in฀ the฀
automobile฀industry,฀further฀consolidated฀the฀nationwide฀economic฀primacy฀of฀the฀
Greater฀São฀Paulo฀metropolitan฀region฀(Godfrey฀1991;฀Godfrey฀1999;฀Morse฀1958;฀
Toledo฀Silva฀2000).
The฀individualism,฀dynamic฀spirit,฀and฀desire฀for฀instant฀wealth฀that฀energised฀the฀
urban฀elite฀found฀concrete฀expression฀in฀the฀approach฀to฀city฀building,฀where฀real฀

of฀peri-urban฀expansion฀in฀ peripheral฀ areas฀ beyond฀ the฀ city฀limits.฀ The฀fashionable฀
residential฀ district฀ that฀ had฀ developed฀ along฀ the฀ Avenida฀ Paulista฀ in฀ the฀ 1920s฀
succumbed฀to฀urban฀densification,฀as฀mansions฀gave฀way฀to฀office฀buildings฀of฀banks,฀
financial฀ services฀and฀ other฀ businesses.฀With฀ the฀ development฀ of฀this฀new฀ financial฀
district,฀the฀central-southwestern฀neighbourhoods฀of฀Jardim฀America,฀Jardim฀Europa฀
and฀Jardim฀Paulista฀were฀planned฀as฀modern฀‘garden฀suburbs’฀(Godfrey฀1999).
In฀the฀late฀1960s฀and฀early฀1970s,฀the฀city฀once฀again฀experienced฀the฀massive฀influx฀
of฀people,฀as฀millions฀of฀internal฀migrants฀drawn฀from฀the฀country’s฀hardscrabble,฀
drought-ridden฀northeast฀sought฀a฀better฀life฀in฀the฀rapidly฀industrialising฀southeast.฀
Urban฀ planning฀ has฀ been฀ unable฀ to฀ offer฀ any฀ consistent฀ programme฀ to฀ deal฀ with฀
explosive฀population฀growth,฀the฀demands฀of฀infrastructural฀improvements฀and฀the฀
rapid฀spread฀of฀shantytowns฀on฀the฀city’s฀outskirts,฀particularly฀in฀the฀eastern฀zone฀
(Romero฀2000a;฀Schiffer฀2002;฀Wilheim฀1984).฀Over฀the฀past฀several฀decades,฀the฀
conjoined฀ processes฀ of฀ economic฀ restructuring,฀ deindustrialisation฀ of฀ the฀ central฀
core฀ and฀ spatial฀ decentralisation฀ of฀ residence฀ and฀ commerce฀ have฀ led฀ to฀ an฀ even฀
more฀ complex฀ and฀ distorted฀ morphology฀ of฀ the฀ Greater฀ São฀ Paulo฀ metropolitan฀
region.฀Once฀the฀industrial฀and฀manufacturing฀heartland฀of฀the฀country,฀São฀Paulo฀
has฀experienced฀a฀steady฀ flight฀of฀industry,฀first฀to฀the฀industrial฀suburbs,฀then฀to฀
a฀broad฀zone฀within฀a฀radius฀of฀at฀least฀180฀from฀the฀central฀downtown฀core,฀and฀
now฀ to฀ neighbouring฀ states฀ and฀ regions.฀ The฀ once฀ compact฀ downtown฀ core฀ has฀
metamorphosised฀ into฀ two฀ primary฀ nodes:฀ the฀ traditional฀ central฀ business฀ district฀
near฀the฀Praca฀da฀Republica฀and฀the฀new฀financial฀district฀along฀the฀Avenida฀Paulista.฀
Along฀with฀several฀import฀satellite฀zones,฀these฀primary฀nodes฀have฀become฀centres฀
not฀ of฀ industry฀ but฀ of฀ high-rise฀ office฀ buildings฀ catering฀ to฀ banking,฀ insurance,฀
The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy
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Martin฀J฀Murray
16
The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy
17

million฀residents฀with฀income฀disparities฀not฀nearly฀as฀skewed฀as฀they฀have฀become.฀An฀
extensive฀network฀of฀trolleys฀and฀buses,฀along฀with฀only฀164,000฀private฀automobiles,฀
provided฀ for฀ a฀ relatively฀ fluid฀ transportation฀ system.฀ Yet฀ by฀ the฀ beginning฀ of฀ the฀
twenty-first฀ century,฀ the฀ number฀ of฀ private฀ automobiles฀ has฀ ballooned฀ to฀ roughly฀
5.1฀ million฀ in฀ the฀ Greater฀ São฀ Paulo฀ metropolitan฀ region,฀ with฀ an฀ estimated฀ 600฀
new฀ vehicles฀ added฀ daily,฀ and฀ 180,000฀ ฀ kilometers฀ of฀ streets.฀ If฀ Los฀ Angeles฀ was฀
the฀first฀city฀whose฀ distorted฀shape฀owes฀its฀ existence฀to฀the฀automobile,฀ then฀São฀
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Martin฀J฀Murray
16
The฀Evolving฀Spatial฀Form฀of฀Cities฀in฀a฀Globalising฀World฀Economy
17
Paulo฀cannot฀be฀far฀behind.฀The฀lack฀of฀adequate฀investment฀ in฀infrastructure฀has฀
resulted฀ in฀ daily฀ gridlock฀ and฀ mounting฀ ‘road฀ rage’฀ assaults.฀ For฀ urban฀ residents,฀
daily฀commutes฀from฀home฀to฀work฀and฀back฀again฀can฀last฀as฀long฀as฀three฀hours฀
each฀trip.฀The฀problem฀is฀not฀one฀of฀vast฀distances,฀but฀agonisingly฀slow฀traffic.฀The฀
public฀transportation฀system฀is฀woefully฀inadequate฀to฀cater฀for฀the฀demands฀placed฀
on฀it฀to฀carry฀passengers.฀The฀subway฀system฀is฀smaller฀than฀the฀one฀in฀Washington฀
DC฀while฀serving฀a฀population฀four฀times฀as฀large.฀2.5฀million฀passengers฀saturate฀its฀
three฀lines฀each฀day.฀In฀contrast,฀New฀York฀City฀has฀25฀subway฀lines฀that฀carry฀4.3฀
million฀passengers.฀In฀São฀Paulo,฀about฀3.7฀million฀residents฀make฀use฀of฀the฀city฀bus฀
system฀each฀day.฀Riding฀the฀city’s฀10,400฀buses฀is฀not฀only฀uncomfortable,฀but฀also฀
often฀dangerous,฀because฀of฀the฀high฀risk฀of฀robberies.฀As฀a฀popular฀alternative,฀an฀
army฀of฀illicit฀minivans฀transports฀twice฀that฀number฀along฀the฀haphazard฀grid฀of฀city฀
streets฀(Agostini฀1999;฀Romero฀1999a;฀Romero฀2000b;฀Rotella฀2001).
Johannesburg฀untamed:฀the฀post-liberal฀city฀after฀apartheid฀Despite฀
its฀declining฀significance฀as฀the฀country’s฀premier฀financial฀and฀business฀centre,฀the฀
embattled฀Johannesburg฀urban฀core฀anchors฀a฀geographically฀disfigured฀metropolitan฀
region฀ of฀ enormous฀ economic฀ and฀ social฀ contrasts฀ (Beall,฀ Crankshaw฀ &฀ Parnell฀
2002;฀ Beavon฀ 1998;฀ Tomlinson,฀ Beauregard,฀ Bremner฀ &฀ Mangcu฀ 2003).฀ The฀

efficiency฀of฀their฀spatial฀dispersal.฀These฀conjoined฀processes฀of฀spatial฀structuring฀
tend฀to฀form฀what฀can฀be฀called฀‘insular฀configurations’.฀In฀contrast฀to฀earlier฀spatial฀
expressions฀of฀divisions฀of฀labour,฀these฀new฀self-sustaining฀islands฀are฀site-specific,฀
yet฀ internally฀ highly฀ complex,฀ multifunctional฀ and฀ integrated฀ (Bremner฀ 2000;฀
Robinson฀1998;฀Saff฀1994).
The฀ steady฀ expansion฀ of฀ peripheral฀ urbanisation฀ and฀ the฀ secular฀ decline฀ of฀ the฀
Johannesburg฀central฀city฀have฀taken฀place฀synchronically.฀The฀clustering฀of฀mixed฀
commercial฀ and฀ residential฀ development฀ projects฀ on฀ the฀ urban฀ fringe฀ reinforces฀
the฀ existing฀ patterns฀ of฀ racial฀ segregation,฀ separating฀ social฀ groups฀ by฀ visual฀
boundaries,฀ growing฀ distances฀and฀such฀interdictory฀spatial฀features฀as฀walls,฀gates฀
and฀ checkpoints.฀ By฀ offering฀ new฀ housing,฀ shopping฀ and฀ other฀ services,฀ which฀ in฀
the฀past฀were฀only฀available฀closer฀to฀the฀city฀centre,฀places฀like฀Sandton,฀Hyde฀Park,฀
Midrand,฀ Sunninghill฀ and฀ Fourways฀ have฀ become฀ paradigmatic฀ exemplars฀ of฀ the฀
urbanisation฀ of฀ suburbia.฀ They฀ have฀ attracted฀ increased฀ concentrations฀ of฀ capital฀
investments,฀ including฀ light฀ industries฀ and฀ small-scale฀ manufacturing฀ operations;฀
headquarter฀ office฀ complexes฀ and฀ shopping฀ centres.฀ The฀ evolving฀ spatial฀ form฀ of฀
these฀ places฀ conforms฀ both฀ to฀ the฀ poetics฀ of฀ postmodern฀ design฀ and฀ the฀ politics฀
and฀economics฀of฀profit-oriented฀ development฀decisions.฀The฀visual฀appearance฀of฀
the฀‘urbanising’฀suburban฀zone฀falls฀into฀line฀with฀its฀real฀increase฀in฀significance฀as฀
an฀economic฀powerhouse฀and฀job฀machine฀(Beavon฀1997;฀Bremner฀1999;฀Bremner฀
2002;฀Tomlinson฀1999).
Fortress฀ enclaves฀ and฀ siege฀ architecture฀ The฀ spatial฀ dynamics฀ of฀ post-
modern฀ urbanism฀ promote฀ the฀ steady฀ expansion฀ of฀ social฀ polarisation฀ and฀ spatial฀
fragmentation,฀ or฀ what฀ urban฀ theorists฀ have฀ variously฀ referred฀ to฀ as฀ ‘dual฀ cities’,฀ ‘
fortress฀cities’,฀‘fragmented฀cities’,฀‘modular฀cities’,฀‘carceral฀cities’,฀‘revanchist฀cities’,฀
‘garrison฀cities’,฀‘layered฀cities’฀and฀‘walled฀cities’.
22
฀By฀cordoning฀off฀urban฀glamour฀
zones฀ (consisting,฀ in฀ the฀ main,฀ of฀ five-star฀ hotels,฀ fancy฀ restaurants,฀ glitzy฀ airports฀
and฀luxury฀entertainments)฀from฀the฀rest฀of฀the฀city,฀postmodern฀urbanism฀not฀only฀

luxury฀hotels,฀convention฀centres฀ and฀shoppertainment฀extravaganzas,฀has฀ come฀at฀
the฀expense฀of฀excluding฀the฀unwanted฀(Davis฀1992;฀Flusty฀1994;฀Marcuse฀1997a;฀
Marcuse฀1997b;฀Marcuse฀1997c).
São฀Paulo:฀฀‘defensive฀urbanism’฀as฀a฀way฀of฀life฀฀Creaking฀under฀political฀
mismanagement,฀ widespread฀ corruption฀ and฀ the฀ apathy฀ generated฀ by฀ decades฀ of฀
haphazard฀growth,฀it฀is฀a฀disorderly฀city฀seemingly฀at฀war฀with฀itself.฀Urban฀residents฀
who฀ can฀ afford฀ to฀ do฀ so฀ have฀ fled฀ crowded,฀ chaotic฀ and฀ crime-plagued฀ places฀ in฀
the฀ city,฀ and฀ have฀ found฀ refuge฀ in฀ the฀ cocooned฀ social฀ spaces฀ fashioned฀ out฀ of฀
fortified฀office฀buildings฀scattered฀across฀the฀fractured฀urban฀landscape,฀or฀in฀gated฀
communities,฀enclosed฀shopping฀malls฀and฀well-guarded฀country฀clubs฀on฀the฀peri-
urban฀fringe,฀especially฀the฀prosperous฀central-southwestern฀zone฀(Rolnik฀2001).฀In฀
contrast,฀the฀poor฀fend฀for฀themselves฀in฀monotonous฀rows฀of฀dilapidated฀high-rise฀
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Martin฀J฀Murray
20
21
apartment฀complexes฀or฀in฀the฀city’s฀teeming฀slums.฀Throughout฀the฀city,฀residents฀
are฀assaulted฀by฀a฀Blade฀Runner-like฀barrage฀of฀neon฀signs,฀massive฀television฀screens฀
and฀garish฀billboards.฀Even฀in฀one฀of฀São฀Paulo’s฀more฀exclusive฀districts,฀the฀Avenida฀
Brigadeiro฀Faria฀Lima,฀where฀stately฀office฀buildings,฀imposing฀investment฀banks฀and฀
information฀technology฀‘start-up’฀companies฀compete฀for฀limited฀space,฀an฀immense฀
Reuters฀screen฀constantly฀steams฀real-time฀updates฀of฀breaking฀news฀from฀around฀the฀
world.฀Above฀the฀disorderly฀cityscape,฀a฀wealthy฀elite฀flies฀over฀in฀their฀helicopters,฀
seemingly฀oblivious฀to฀the฀vast,฀pulsating฀centre฀of฀life฀that฀persists฀below.฀In฀terms฀
of฀its฀aesthetic฀attractiveness,฀it฀may฀be฀the฀ugliest฀large฀city฀in฀the฀world.฀But฀socially฀
and฀culturally,฀it฀is฀also฀very฀much฀alive฀(Faiola฀2002;฀Romero฀2000a).฀
São฀Paulo฀experienced฀an฀industrial฀boom฀over฀the฀past฀century,฀luring฀millions฀of฀
poor฀and฀landless฀people฀from฀the฀impoverished฀northeast฀to฀settle฀in฀the฀northeastern฀
‘growth฀ corridor’฀ connecting฀ São฀ Paulo฀ with฀ Rio฀ de฀ Janeiro฀ (Diniz฀ 1994).฀ These฀
recent฀arrivals฀ have฀ not฀only฀crowded฀ into฀slum฀areas฀close฀to฀ the฀ central฀city฀but฀

the฀ largest฀ in฀ São฀ Paulo.฀ It฀ is฀ surrounded฀ by฀ a฀ four-metre฀ high฀ cement฀ wall฀ and฀
barbed฀ wire฀ with฀ its฀ own฀ private฀ army฀ of฀ 1,100฀ well-armed฀ security฀ officers฀ who฀
screen฀all฀visitors,฀patrol฀the฀streets฀and฀maintain฀constant฀vigilance฀over฀suspicious฀
characters.฀Like฀the฀estimated฀300฀ other฀ such฀secured฀residential฀estates฀that฀ have฀
proliferated฀in฀the฀urban฀fringe,฀Alphaville฀is฀ truly฀ a฀ futuristic฀‘city-within-a-city’,฀
offering฀a฀sequestered฀refuge,฀an฀escape฀from฀the฀‘big฀city’฀and฀all฀its฀problems.฀It฀
is฀ an฀ enclosed,฀ self-sufficient฀ mini-universe฀ with฀ its฀ own฀ shopping฀ mall,฀ its฀ own฀
supermarkets฀and฀its฀own฀recreational฀facilities฀to฀accommodate฀its฀residents.฀Besides฀
the฀collective฀security฀provided฀for฀the฀enclosure฀as฀a฀whole,฀most฀homeowners฀have฀
hired฀private฀security฀personnel฀to฀guard฀their฀individual฀properties,฀which฀consist฀in฀
the฀main฀of฀either฀luxuriously฀equipped฀apartment฀complexes฀or฀exclusive฀homes฀on฀
spacious฀lots.฀The฀enclosed฀estate฀has฀three฀helipads฀and฀four฀entrances฀and฀exits;฀all฀
monitored฀24฀hours฀a฀day.฀Meticulously฀planned฀as฀a฀suburban฀Valhalla,฀Alphaville฀
is฀divided฀into฀distinct฀cells฀or฀specialty฀zones.฀Besides฀residential฀areas,฀the฀complex฀
also฀includes฀retail฀trade,฀office฀and฀service฀locations.฀As฀a฀consequence,฀during฀the฀
day,฀the฀population฀balloons฀to฀around฀130,000฀people.฀In฀2000,฀there฀were฀more฀
than฀1,400฀companies฀with฀office฀or฀commercial฀facilities฀in฀Alphaville,฀along฀with฀
several฀huge฀shopping฀centres,฀numerous฀private฀schools,฀a฀private฀university,฀diverse฀
leisure฀facilities฀(several฀cinema฀complexes,฀sports฀fields,฀and฀so฀forth)฀and฀a฀luxury฀
hotel฀with฀a฀connected฀business฀centre฀and฀retail฀shopping฀venue.฀Alphaville฀offers฀
a฀ self-sufficient,฀ segregated฀ luxury฀ housing฀ scheme฀ that฀ combines฀ an฀ ‘innovative’฀
lifestyle฀for฀the฀rich฀and฀very฀rich฀along฀with฀convenience฀and฀safety฀(Coy฀&฀Pohler฀
2002;฀De฀Lima฀Seabra฀1992).
Alphaville฀ promises฀ its฀ residents฀ a฀ high฀ standard฀ of฀ security฀ in฀ each฀ walled฀
residential฀compound฀with฀the฀help฀of฀such฀sophisticated฀security฀systems฀as฀access฀
control,฀hidden฀cameras฀and฀private฀guard฀services.฀In฀its฀15฀residential฀areas฀(called฀
residenciais),฀ surveillance฀ cameras฀ mounted฀ at฀ security฀ checkpoints฀ surreptitiously฀
record฀ the฀movements฀of฀all฀visitors.฀In฀the฀communal฀areas,฀ children฀ can฀ attend฀
well-guarded฀schools฀and฀enjoy฀afternoon฀sports฀on฀fenced-in฀fields฀that฀are฀carefully฀
monitored฀by฀private฀security฀guards฀dressed฀in฀military฀style฀black-clad฀uniforms.฀