VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
POST-GRADUATE DEPARTMENT
………………………………… BUI THUY ANH
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES
THROUGH SOME ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE FABLES
(NGHIÊN CỨU SO SÁNH CÁC PHƯƠNG TIỆN LIÊN KẾT TỪ VỰNG
THÔNG QUA MỘT SỐ TRUYỆN NGỤ NGÔN ANH VÀ VIỆT)
MINOR PROGRAM THESIS
Field : English liguistics
Code: 602215 Hanoi, April, 2009

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
POST-GRADUATE DEPARTMENT
…………………………………

Chapter 1 : Literature Review and Theoreretical background
1.1. Literature Review……………………………………………………………4
1.2. Theoretical background
1.2.1. Discourse and discourse analysis……………………………………….6
1.2.1.1. The concept of discourse……………………… ………………………6
1.2.1.2. Discourse and text…………………………….……………………… 7
1.2.1.3. Discourse analysis…………… ……………………………………….7
1.2.2. Theories of genres………………………………………………………………8
1.2.2.1. Definition of genre……………………………………………………………8
1.2.2.2. Genre versus register……………………………………………………… 10
1.2.2.3. Common discourse genre……………………………………………………13
1.2.3. Fables as a genre of discourse…………………………………………………15
1.2.3.1. Definitions of Fables……………………………………………………… 15
1.2.3.2. General characteristics of fables…………………………………………….16
1.2.4. Cohesion and coherence………………………………………………………16
1.2.4.1. Cohesion versus coherence………………………………………………….16
1.2.4.2. Cohesion and discourse structure……………………………………………16
1.2.4.3. Types of cohesion………………………………………………………… 17
1.2.4.3.1. Grammatical cohesion…………………………………………………….18
1.2.4.3.2. Lexical cohesion………………………………………………………… 19

III

Chapter 2: A comparative study of Lexical cohesive devices through some
English and Vietnamese fables
2.1. Lexical reiteration…………………………………………………….…… … 22
2.1.1. Repetition………………………………………………………………….…22
2.1.2. Synonymy……………………………………………………………………27
2.1.3. Antonymy………………………………………………………….…………29
2.1.4. Superordinate and general word…………………………………….……… 29

animals as characters‖ ( Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary). Although fables
are short and simple, they own their typical features distinguished from other
genres of discourse such as an article or a speech. But in fact, English fables are not
still paid attention to despite the fact that they represent great potentials for
teaching language to learners. With all the reasons above, the author would like to
choose ― Analysis of lexical cohesive devices in English and Vietnamese Fables as
the topic of this study. I do hope that the results of this study are of practical value.

2. Aims of the study
The main aims of the thesis are as follows:
 To identify lexical cohesive devices used in English and Vietnamese Fables.
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 To compare lexical cohesive devices through some English and Vietnamese
Fables

3. Scope of the study:
This study will firstly deal with theoretical background of discourse especially
coherence, cohesion and cohesive devices. The attention of the study will be
secondly paid to considering study of lexical cohesive devices through some
English fables and their equivalents in Vietnamese Fables. Our efforts are to collect
data in both English and Vietnamese to see the frequencies and differences and
similarities of each device and sub-device of lexical cohesive devices in the
discourse in both languages.

4. Methods of the study
To attain the aims of the study, the research will conduct the following activities:
 Firstly, data including relevant theories and fables for analysis will be
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Part II: DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 1: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
This chapter deals with literature review and theoretical topics such as concepts of
discourse, cohesion & coherence, cohesive devices, register and genre, fables which are
relevant to the purpose of the study.
1.1. LITERATURE REVIEW
As a genre of discourse in traditional literature, fables are brief stories which take abstract
ideas of good and bad, wisdom and foolishness. Because of their relative simple structure
and moralizing characters, fables have become popular not only adults but also children.
They can be used as a means of education by entertainment and as a convenient disguise
for manifestation of political and social convictions. English fables, however, have not
received attentions, despite the fact that they represent great potentials for teaching

sequence of the events.
In summary, it is noticeable that several studies on cohesive devices and particularly
lexical cohesive devices have been carried out in many discourses and genres, while there
is only one researcher showing her interest in English fables. She gave a detailed analysis
to how some discourse features of English fables. A study of lexical cohesive devices
through some English and Vietnamese fables has not been paid attention. For these
reasons, this study is carried with the hope that the result of the study is helpful for the
application of English fables to teach English to Vietnamese fables. 6
1.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1.2.1. Discourse and Discourse analysis
1.2.1.1. The concept of discourse
The Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (1998) defines
discourse as follows: ―Discourse is a general term for example of language use, i.e.
language has been produced as the result of an act of communication‖. Sharing the same
concern, many other linguists have so far given definitions of discouse. Crystal( 1992:25)
claims that discourse is ― a continuous stretch of ( especially spoken) language than a
sentence, often constituting a coherent unit, such as a sermon, an argument, a joke or a
narrative.‖ Widdowson (1979) states: ―Discourse is a use of sentences to perform acts of

confusion of these two terms may result in the failures of discourse analysis. Even though
that the distinction is not always clear and the two terms are used interchangeably by some
linguists. As in the definition of discourse by Halliday and Hasan, ―text‖ is employed to
refer to ―discourse‖; they see ―text‖ as a ―semantic unit‖ characterized by cohesion. The
two authors state: ―A text is a passage of discourse which coherent in these two regards: it
is coherent with respect to itself , and therefore consistent in register; and it is coherent
with respect to itself, and therefore cohesive‖ (1976: 23). For some other linguists, ―text‖ is
used for writing and ―discourse‘ for speech. The third group of linguists like Brown &
Yule, Nunan, Widdowson, and Cook see discourse as a process and text as a product.
Brown & Yule argue that text is the representation of discourse and the verbal record of a
communication act.
There is disagreement about the meanings of the two terms discourse and text. However,
all linguistics agree that both text and discourse need to be defined in terms of meaning and
that coherent text/ pieces of discourse are those that form a meaningful whole. Easily,
discourse is a general tem to refer to all acts of verbal communication, whereas a text is
simply a verbal record of the whole communicative process (that is discourse) in which
many situational factors are involved; it can be written and spoken, and there is no limit to
the size of a text. Thus, the text is a purely linguistic, formal object, while discourse has
both linguistic and non-linguistic properties.
1.2.1.3. Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between language and
the context in which it is used. This has been developed from the works of different
disciplines in the 1960s, including linguistics, semiotics, psychology, anthropology and
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sociology. Discourse analysis study language in use: written texts and spoken data of all
kinds under the approach different from those old grammarians. There have been
numerous interpretation to what is meant by Discourse analysis.

may involve oral language (for example, a sermon, a casual conversation), or written
language (for example, a poem, a newspaper headlines)‖ (Nunan, 1993:117). The
functional linguists argue that language exists to fulfill certain functions, and that these
structure emerges as people communicate with one another-that is, it will have certain
predictable stages. The communicative purpose will also be reflected in the basic building
blocks of the discourse-that is, the words and grammatical structures themselves. In other
words, different types of communicative events result in different types of discourse, and
each of these will have its own distinctive characteristics. Some events result in sermon,
others in political speech and casual conversation will be different, each discourse type will
share certain characteristics which will set it apart from other discourse types.
According to Webster‘s Third New International Dictionary genre is a ―distinctive type or
category of literary composition”. Linguists hold different views about the definition of
genre. Martin (1985:250), cited in Swales (1990), offers a relatively simple definition with
illustrations about genre:”Genres are how things get done, when language is used to
accomplish them. They range from literary to far from literary forms: poems, narratives,
expositions, lectures, seminars, recipes, manuals, appointment making, service encounters,
news broadcasts and so on. The term genre is used here to embrace each of the
linguistically realized activity types which comprise so much of our culture.” Martin‘s
definition, however, does not reveal much clearly the nature of genre, and how each genre
differs from one another.
According to Kress (1985:19), cited in Hatim and Mason (1990:69), genres are
“conventionalized forms of texts which reflect the functions and goats involved in
particular social occasions as well as the purposes of the participants in them,” From a
socio-semiotic point of view, this particular use of language is best viewed in terms of
norms which are internalized as part of the ability to communicate.
Hatim and Mason (1990:140) claim that:”genres are viewed in terms of a set of features
which we perceive as being appropriate to a given social occasion”. In other words, the
conventions of the social occasion are the key factor in determining genres; and there is a
relationship between elements of lexis, grammar, etc. and the social occasion associated
which particular genres.

Registers are often discussed in term of three features of context known as field, tenor, and
mode. Halliday (1978) states that ―there are three aspects in any situation that have
linguistic consequences: field, mode, and tenor of discourse”:
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- Field (or reference to ―what is going on‖): is the kind of language use which
reflects the purposive role, or the social function of the text. Field equals the
setting and purpose of the interaction.
- Mode: refers to the medium of the language activity or the channel chosen
to communicate, i.e. whether it is spoken or written. It is the manifestation
of the nature of language code being used.
- Tenor: relays the relationship between the addresser and the addressee; this
may be analyzed in terms of basic distinctions of formality on a scale of
categories, which range from formal to informal, such as : polite-colloquial-
intimate.
With reference to the mutual relation between genre and register, Martin (1985), cited in
Swales (1990:40), suggests the three-way distinction: genres are realized through registers,
and registers in turn are realized through language. He argues that genres constrain the
ways in which register variables of field, tenor and more can be combined in a particular
society. Genres also comprise a system for accomplishing social purposes by verbal means.
Couture (1968), cited in Swales (1990:41) explains that registers impose constraints at the
linguistic levels of vocabulary and syntax, whereas genre constraints operate at the level of
discourse structure. For Couture the two concepts need to be kept apart: genres (research
report, explanation, business report, etc.) are completable structured text, while registers
(language of scientific reporting, language of newspaper reporting, bureaucratic language,
etc.) represent more generalizable stylistic choices.
The relationship between genre and register can be best revealed through Halliday‘s model
of discourse analysis, which is cited in Munday (2001:90):

 Field: associated with ideational meaning, which is realized via transitivity patterns
( verb types, active/passive structures, participants in the process, ect)
 Tenor: associated with interpersonal meaning, which is realized via patterns of
modality.
 Mode: associated with textual meaning, which is realized via the thematic and
information structure ( mainly the order and structuring of elements in a clause) and
cohesion ( the way the texts hangs together lexically, including the use of ellipses,
collocations, repetitions, ect.)
Generally, it is no doubt that context influences the choice of register, and certain
registers are appropriate only on to a certain context. Genres have ― complementary‖
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register, and communicative success with the text may require ― an appropriate
relationship to systems of genre and register‖ ( Couture, 1986: 86)
1.2.2.3. Common discourse genres:
It is supposed that discourse is divided into two main categories: spoken ( or oral) genre
and written genre. The tradition division of language into the spoken and the written is
clearly and sensibly based on a difference in production and reception: we use our mouths
and ears for one, and our hands and eyes for the other.
With reference to oral discourse, the sub-division of this broad category may result in a
variety of text-types, some of which are: oral narrative, jokes, unrehearsed conversation,
oral poetry, speeches, lectures, songs, ect. Spoken discourse is regarded as less planned and
orderly, but more open to intervention by the receiver. There are some kinds of spoken
discourse, however- like lessons, lectures, interviews, trials, ect ; which have significantly
features in common with written discourse.
In the case of written discourse, Hevey and Higgins (1992), cited in Lien ( 2003) , states
that ― there are so many different varieties‖, which they suggest as follows:
 Theoretical/ religious genres, of which the subject matter implies the

on. During the process of their formation, they absorb and digest various primary ( simple)
genres that have taken form in unmediated speech communion.”
1.2.3. Fables as a genre of discourse
1.2.3.1. Definition of fables:
A fable is ― a brief allegorical narrative, in verse or prose, which illustrates a moral thesis
or satirizing human beings; the characters of a fable are usually animals who talk and act
like people while retaining their animal traits‖.( The Columbia Electronics Encyclopedia)
According to Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, a fable is ― a traditional short story
that teaches a moral lesson, especially one with animals as characters‖
Fables are short stories which takes abstract ideas of good and bad, wisdom and
foolishness and make them concrete. Fables have some characteristics. Characters in fables
are usually animals, or sometimes inanimate objects which behave as human-beings.
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Characters are flat, and stand for one human trait. Plot is very brief with one incident. The
story teaches a moral lesson, which may or may not be expressed in a proverb or maxim
The varying corpus denoted Aesopica or Aesop's Fables includes most of the best-known
western fables, which are attributed to the legendary Aesop, supposed to have been a slave
in ancient Greece around 550 BC. Many familiar fables of Aesop include ―The Crow and
the Pitcher,‖ ―The Hare and the Tortoise,‖ and ―The Lion and the Mouse.‖
Hundreds of fables were composed in ancient India during the first millennium BC, often
as stories within frame stories. These included Vishnu Sarma's Panchatantra, the
Hitopadesha, Vikram and The Vampire, and Syntipas' Seven Wise Masters, which were
collections of fables that were later influential throughout the Old World The most
famous fables from the Middle East were the One Thousand and One Nights, also known
as the Arabian Nights.
Fables had a further long tradition through the Middle Ages, and became part of European
high literature. During the 17th century, the French fabulist Jean de La Fontaine (1621–

Fables, as a genre of discourse in traditional literature, brief stories which take abstract
ideas of good and bad, wisdom and foolishness and make them concrete. Fables own the
following characteristics:
- Characters are animals, inanimate objects behaving like human-beings.
- Characters are flat and stand for one human trait.
- Plot is very brief, with one incident.
- The story is a lesson which may or may not be expresses in a proverb or
maxim.
1.2.4. Cohesion and coherence
1.2.4.1 Cohesion vs Coherence
Cohesion, a term used by Halliday and Hasan (1997), refers to the various linguistic means
– the grammatical, lexical, phonological relationship between different elements of a text.
Thus, this relationship may be between different parts of a sentence of different sentences
in other words, they ― stick together‖ to make up a sentence or into larger units of
paragraphs or chapters or discourse.
Coherence refers to the relationship in which various elements in a text mesh together
properly into a coherent whole. In other words, as Nunan (1993) coherence is ― the feeling
that sequences of sentences or utterances seems to hang together and make sense‖.
In fact, cohesion and coherence have a close relationship in making a perfectly
communicative text. To be more exact, cohesion contributes to the successful coherence of
a text and coherence is something created by the reader in the act of reading the text. In
short, although coherence and cohesion, in essence, is difference from each other they are
closely link with one another. They present the very essential elements that make coherent
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text or discourse different from random sentences or utterance. Coherence is embodied by
a system of cohesion devices and cohesion is mainly used to embody coherence.
1.2.4.2. Types of Cohesion


Grammatical cohesion
Lexical cohesion
Reference
 Exophoric
 Endophoric
+ Personal
+ Demonstrative
+ Comparative
Substitution
 Norminal
substitution
 Verbal substitution
 Clausal substitution
Ellipsis
 Norminal ellipsis

Conjunction
 Additive
 Adversative
 Causal
 Temporal
 Others
Reiteration
 Same word/
repetition
 Synonym/ near
synonyms
 Superordinates
 General words

of the text. There are four types of conjunction: temporal, causal, additive and adversative.
1.2.4.2.2. Lexical cohesion
Besides grammatical cohesion, lexical cohesion has a vital role in creating a discourse. It is
clearly admitted that vocabulary does increase the textuality of discourse. Lexical cohesion
occurs when vocabulary item in a discourse are semantically related in some way. In other
words, they are related in terms of meanings. Halliday and Hasan ( 1976) divided lexical
cohesion into two main categories: reiteration and collocation
a. Reiteration
Reiteration has an appearance of systematic relationships between or among lexical items
in the text. The concept of reiteration provided by Halliday and Hasan (1976;319) is as
follows:
Reiteration is the repetition of a lexical item, or the occurrence of a synonym of
some kind, in the context of reference; that is, where the two occurrences have the same
reference. Typically, therefore, a reiterated lexical item is accompanied by a reference
item, usually ― the‖ or a demonstrative. The complex consisting of ― the‖ plus reiterated
lexical item is therefore cohesive by reference. But since reiteration is itself cohesive in its
own right, as show by the fact that cohesion takes place even where there is no referential
relation………
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From the complete concept above, reiteration can be regarded as a form which involves the
repetition of a lexical item, at one end of the scale, the use of a general word of a preceding
item, at the other end of the scale, and the number of thing in between- the use of
synonym, antonym and superordinate and general words:
Repetition
Repetition is the way we repeat exactly a lexical item mentioned previously in the text.
Thus, repetition aims at logical emphasis, which is necessary to fix the attention of the
readers on the key words or phrases of the utterances.