Vietnam national university, hanoi
University of languages and international studies
FACULTY of post- graduate studies

TRẦN THỊ HOA MAI AN ANALYSIS OF GRAMMATICAL COHESION USED IN
“THE CALL OF THE WILD” BY JACK LONDON
(Phân tích liên kết ngữ pháp sử dụng trong tác phẩm “Tiếng gọi
nơi hoang dã” của Jack London) M.A. Minor programme thesis

Field: English Linguistics
Code: 60.22.15

HANOI – 2010
Vietnam national university, hanoi
University of languages and international studies
FACULTY of post- graduate studies

ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………………… iii
TABLES OF CONTENTS iv
LISTS OF TABLES AND FIGURES …………………………………………… … vi

PART A: INTRODUCTION 1
1. Rationale of the study 1
2. Aims of the study 2
3. Scope of the study 2
4. Methods of the study 2
5. Design of the study 3

PART B: DEVELOPMENT 4
Chapter 1: Theoretical Background 4
1.1. Discourse and Discourse Analysis 4
1.1.1. Discourse Analysis 4
1.1.2. Discourse and text 5
1.2. Cohesion 5
1.2.1. The concept of cohesion 5
1.2.2. Cohesion vs. Coherence 6
1.2.3. Types of Cohesion 6
1.2.3.1. Grammatical Cohesion 7
1.2.3.2. Lexical Cohesion 12
Chapter 2: An overview on "The Call of the Wild" by Jack London 13
2.1. A brief summary of "The Call of the Wild" 13
2.2. An overview on "The Call of the Wild" 13
2.2.1. Characters 13
2.2.2. Story events 14
v

Chapter 3: An analysis of grammatical cohesion used in "The Call of the Wild"

vi

List of Tables and Figures

Tables and Figures Pages
Figures 1.1: Reference 8

Table 1.1: Type of cohesion 6
Table 1.2: Grammatical and Lexical cohesion 7
Table 3.1: Exophoric Reference in “The Call of the Wild” 16
Table 3.2. Personal Reference in “The Call of the Wild” 18
Table 3.3. Demonstrative Reference in “The Call of the Wild” 19
Table 3.4. Comparative Reference in “The Call of the Wild” 19
Table 3.5: Substitution in “The Call of the Wild” 21
Table 3.6: Specific Deitics in “The Call of the Wild” 24
Table 3.7: Non-specific Deitics in “The Call of the Wild” 26
Table 3.8: Numerative in “The Call of the Wild” 27
Table 3.9: Verbal Ellipsis in “The Call of the Wild” 29
Table 3.10: Clausal Ellipsis in “The Call of the Wild” 31
Table 3.11: Conjunctive Relations in “The Call of the Wild” 34


Wild" by Jack London" as the topic of this study. Hopefully, it may help teachers and
learners of foreign language have an overall viewpoint on grammatical cohesive devices as
well as the effectiveness of the application of such devices in Jack London's "The Call of
the Wild".
2
2. Aims of the study
As mentioned above, there are several reasons that lead the author to choose to
carry out this study. Thus, the aims of the study are as follows:
 To explore how the grammatical cohesive devices employed in "The Call of the
Wild".
 To make a detailed analysis of grammatical cohesion in Jack London's "The Call of
the Wild".
In order to achieve the aims stated, the study is meant to find out the answers to the
following research questions:
1. What grammatical cohesive devices are used in "The Call of the Wild"?
2. To what extent do grammatical cohesive devices contribute to the success of
literary works?

3. Scope of the study
As Discourse Analysis has a very broad scope which has a very close relationship
with many other aspects of language study, it is impossible for the author to refer to all of
its characteristics. Thus, within this study, the author just mentions some background
knowledge about Discourse Analysis as well as coherence and cohesion.
In addition, there are a number of factors that make "The Call of the Wild" a
successful work, hence, this study only focuses on the grammatical cohesive devices
employed in Jack London's book. Data analyzed is taken from the seven chapters of the
book.

introduced in the study.
The study ends with the "REFERENCES" which list all the materials and sources
of information used in this study. 4
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
As mentioned before, Discourse Analysis has a very broad scope which has close
relationship with many other aspects of language study. Nevertheless, due to the
framework of a M.A. minor programme thesis, in this chapter, the authors just attempts to
discuss some theoretical background about Discourse Analysis in general and Cohesion in
particular.
1.1. Discourse and Discourse Analysis
1.1.1. Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is concerned with the relationship between language and the
context in which it is used. It grew out of the work of different disciplines in the 1960s and
early 1970s, including linguistics, semiotics, psychology, anthropology and sociology.
Discourse analysts study language in use: written texts and spoken data of all kinds under
the approach different from those old grammarians. For the time being, there have been
numerous interpretations to what is meant by Discourse Analysis.

general concept for describing how the context of situation determines the kinds of
meaning that are expressed. Yet, according to Halliday and Hasan, the linguistic features,
which are typically associated with a configuration of situational features - with particular
values of the field, mode and tenor - constitute a register.

1.2. Cohesion
1.2.1. The concept of cohesion
The concept of cohesion is closely connected with text. It is defined as the
grammatical and lexical relationship between different elements of a text. According to
Yule (1996), a text is usually considered to have a certain structure which depends on
factors quite different from those required in the structure of single sentence. Some among
those factors are described in terms of cohesion, or the ties and connection which exist
within a text.
Halliday and Hasan (1976:4) also define cohesion in a similar way: "The concept of
cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning that exist within a text, and that
defines it as a text". They also point out that cohesion often occurs where the interpretation
of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another. 6
1.2.2. Cohesion vs. Coherence
The distinction between cohesion and coherence has not always been clarified
partly because both terms come from the same verb cohere which means sticking together.
In fact, cohesion is the network of different kinds of formal relations that provide links
between or among various parts of a text, and is expressed partly through the grammar and
partly through the vocabulary. Coherence, in contrast, can be understood as the quality of
being meaningful and unified. As for Nunan (1993), coherence is "the feeling that
sequences of sentences or utterances seem to hang together".
Coherence refers to the type of semantic and rhetorical relationships that underline
texts. If cohesion refers to the linguistic elements that make a discourse semantically

Consequently, we can refer to grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion as follows:
Grammatical cohesion
Lexical cohesion
Reference
 Exophoric
 Endophoric
- personal
- demonstrative
- comparative
Substitution
 Nominal substitution
 Verbal substitution
 Clausal substitution
Ellipsis
 Nominal ellipsis
 Verbal ellipsis
 Clausal ellipsis

Conjunction
 Additive
 Adversative
 Causal
 Temporal
 Others
Reiteration
 Same word/repetition
 Synonym/near synonyms
 Superordinates
 General words
Collocation

[to preceding text] [to following text]
anaphora cataphora
Figure 1.1: Reference
(Source: Halliday and Hasan, 1976:33)

They then conclude that reference items may be exophoric or endophoric; and if
endophoric, they may be anaphoric or cataphoric. These two authors also indicate: "There
are items in every language which have the property of reference". In English, those items
belong to anaphoric and cataphoric reference. The first consists of items which point the
readers or listeners backwards to a previously mentioned entity, process or state of affairs.
The second, on the other hand, points the readers or listeners forward further into the text
in order to identify elements to which the reference items refer.
To take an example, let us look at the opening lines of a famous English novel,
Jude the Obscure. The author, Thomas Hardy, shows different types of reference at work:
The schoolmaster was leaving the village, and everybody seemed sorry. The miller at Cresscombe
lent him the small white tilted cart and horse to carry his goods to the city of his destination, about
twenty miles off, such a vehicle providing of quite sufficient size for the departing teacher's effects.
In this example, there are both anaphoric and exophoric reference. The followings are
detailed analysis of such types of reference.
 Anaphoric Reference:
In the first sense, him in "lent him the small white tilted cart" is the schoolmaster
introduced earlier, his destination is the schoolmaster's and such a links back to the cart in
the previous sentence; therefore, all the expressions “him, his destination, such a” are
referred to as anaphoric reference.

9
 Exophoric Reference:
10
Substitution
The second type of grammatical cohesion analysed below is substitution.
Substitution is a relation in the wording rather than in the meaning and within the text. It is
the use of substitute word or phrase to avoid repetition. Most of the substitutes are
proforms within sentences, which can be used across sentences. There are three types of
substitution: nominal substitution, verbal substitution and clausal substitution. Substitutes
may be proforms for nouns (one/ ones); proforms for adverbials (there, like it, like that, );
proforms for predicates and predication (do so, do it, do that, so do/does); proforms for
the direct object clause (that, so, ). According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), nominal
substitution includes: one, ones, same; verbal substitution consists of do; and clausal
substitution are so, not. The following are some examples of substitution.
 Nominal substitution
There are some new tennis balls in the bag. These ones have lost their bounce.
In the second sentence, “ones” refers to the noun phrase “tennis balls” appearing before. It
is, therefore, called nominal substitution.
 Verbal substitution
A: Did Mary take that letter?
B: She might have done.
The verb “done” in B’s answer is a substitute of the verb phrase “take that letter”. In this
case, “done” is an example of verbal substitution.
 Clausal substitution
A: Is it going to rain?
B: I think so.
We can see clearly from this conversation that B agrees with A’s idea and the word “so”
substitutes the clause “it is going to rain”. “So” is clausal substitution.

Ellipsis

adversative. Following are some examples of conjunctive relations:
- Temporal: then, next, after that, just then, at the same time, finally, at last, at once, soon,
after a time, next time, on another occasion, meanwhile, until then, etc.
We have been looking for that book for months. Finally, we manage to get it.
- Causal: so, then, hence, therefore, consequently, for this reason, account for this, as a
result, with this in mind, for, because, on this basis, to this end, arising out of this, in that
case, that being so, under the circumstances, otherwise, in this respect, with reference to
this, aside from this, etc.
As a student, he was very lazy. Consequently, he failed his entrance examination to university.

12
- Adversative: yet, though, however, only, nevertheless, despite this, in fact, actually, on
the other hand, at the same time, instead of, on the contrary, at least, in any case, anyhow,
at any rate, etc.
I have lived here for ten years; however, I've never heard of that pub.
- Additive: and, and so, nor, furthermore, in addition, besides, alternatively, incidentally,
by the way, that is, I mean, in other words, for instance, thus, likewise, similarly, in the
same way, by contrast, etc.
She is intelligent. And she is also very reliable.

1.2.3.2. Lexical Cohesion
Lexical cohesion was first advanced by Firth (1957) and later developed by
Halliday (1961, 1966). Lexical cohesion occurs when two words in a discourse are
semantically related in some way. Halliday and Hasan (1976) classify lexical cohesion into
two main categories: reiteration and collocation.
Reiteration
Reiteration, according to Halliday and Hasan (1976), is "the repetition of a lexical
item, or the occurrence of a synonym of some kind, in the context of reference; that is,
where the two occurrences have the same referent". Reiteration involves repetition,
synonyms and near synonyms, superordinates, and general words.

as a sledge dog, passing from rough but skilled hands of his first owners, to the
incompetence of a group of three, and then finally, into the care of the loving John
Thornton, teaches him to survive in the ways of the wild. In the process, his natural killer
instincts, made dormant by his brush with civilisation, awaken. Buck becomes the best
sledge dog ever that walked the frozen trails to the land of gold. In the end, as John
Thornton – the last tie with human life - dies a tragic death, Buck finally resides where he
was always meant to be: in the heart, and call of the wild.

2.2. An overview on "The Call of the Wild"
2.2.1. Characters
As a matter of fact, "The Call of the Wild" is the story of a dog's journey and all the
events happened in the story are seen through the eyes of that dog. Buck, the name of the
dog, can be said to be the witness as well as the story-teller who helps readers have an
overall perception of the whole story. However, Jack London's viewpoint is not just to
describe a journey. He also wants, through his characters, to convey the social concerns of
that period.

14
Added to this, during his journey, Buck has a great deal of relationships with a
number of different characters. All these characters have built up the story events.
Nevertheless, the major characters of the story can be classified into three groups: Buck,
John Thornton, and the last consisting of three members: Hal, Charles and Mercedes. Each
character represents the thoughts and behaviour of one group of people during the period in
which the story takes place.

2.2.2. Story events
"The Call of the Wild" is a great novel with a long sequence of events happening
through the story of Buck. However, it is not merely a description of a journey seeking for
gold, it is a true description of life during the time when the story was written. The novel,
therefore, teaches us the real life, not in a big comfortable flat, but life, which consists of

3.1. References
3.1.1. Exophoric and Endophoric Reference
3.1.1.1 Exophoric Reference
Reference is a relationship in meaning. The fact shows that reference to the
situation is the prior form of reference, and that reference to another item within the text is
a secondary or derived form of this relation. This is more clearly illustrated in Halliday
(1985:312): “It seems quite unlikely that reference first evolved as an “exophoric” relation:
that is, as a means of linking “outwards” to some person or object in the environment”. In
another word, reference to assumed, shared worlds outside of the text are exophoric.
Exophoric reference contributes to the creation of the text, in that it links the language with
the context of situation, but it does not contribute to the integration of one passage with
another so that the two together form the parts of the same text. It is not text-internal, not
of contribution to the cohesion of a text, however, it helps to make sense in the context.
While analysing “The Call of the Wild” in detail, we realize that such type of
references is widely used. It can be seen in the following examples:
( ) And this was the manner of dog Buck in the fall of 1897, when the Klondike strike dragged men
from all the world into the frozen North. (Chapter 1)
On reading the book, this sentence draws our attention to “the Klondike” and “the
frozen North”. In order to understand these linguistic items, it is essential that readers have
some background knowledge of the social event taking place during the time the novel was
written. (The Klondike Gold Rush was a frenzy of gold rush immigration to and for gold
prospecting, at the Klondike river near Dawson city, Yuko, Canada, after gold was
discovered there in the late 19
th
century. Many men of that time were lured to that area to
explore this precious metal).

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Buck’s first day on the Dyea beach was like a nightmare. (Chapter 2)
Jack London ends chapter 1 with the scene of the dog Buck and his friends leaving

Chapter 5
72
18.5
Chapter 6
65
16.7
Chapter 7
81
20.7
Total
390
100
Table 3.1: Exophoric Reference in “The Call of the Wild”.
As can be seen from the table, Jack London has exploited a great deal of exophoric
reference in his novel. Through the seven chapters of the book, there are 390 cases in
which exophoric referent markers are employed (100 %). Of these, the figures gained in
each chapter after analysing are not the same in terms of frequency. Chapter seven - with
81 times of occurences of exophoric reference - ranks first, accounting for 20.7 %. On the
contrary, in chapter 2, there are only 34 examples of exophoric referent items, with the

17
proportion of 8.7 %. Chapter five ranks second with 72 cases (18.5 %). Next comes
chapter six with 65 times, which accounts for 16.7 %. In the three chapters left, exophoric
reference appears rather often, counting for a small number of around 37 – 65 times. This
is understandable as a result of the differences in length between chapters. Furthermore, in
each chapter, it is the context of the story event that determines the number of occurences
of such referent markers.
There are reasons for the author’s choices of exploiting such a large number of
exophoric reference. First of all, these are employed in the novel in accordance with Jack
London’s writing style when he attempts to show great concern about the current social

landing” is anaphoric on referring to “the outside dogs” in the first part of that sentence.
Lastly, “they” in “They did not seem to know anything” is cataphoric refererent of “these
newcomers”, appearing in the final part of the whole text.
Surprisingly, with regards to endophora, anaphora is exploited in greater number.
That is to say, in most cases, readers have to move forwards to understand thoroughly the
linguistic expressions they are reading. The next part of this chapter is the statistical
analysis of Reference Markers in “The Call of the Wild”.
3.1.2. Statistical Analysis of Reference Markers
As mentioned in the previous chapter, there are three types of reference: personal,
demonstrative and comparative. The following table will show in more detail the number
of occurences of each type in the novel.
To begin with, let us have a look at personal referent items used in this novel.
Personal
N
o
of occurences
Function
Class
Determinative
Possessive
Deitic
Chapter
1
Chapter
2
Chapter
3
Chapter
4
Chapter

It
Its
Its
19
25
53
30
70
54
100
Plural

They/them
theirs
Their
34
86
135
40
138
46
100
Table 3.2. Personal Reference in “The Call of the Wild”.
Table 3.2 shows that throughout the seven chapters of the book, the writer has used
a great deal of personal reference, both singular and plural, though different in terms of
frequency. This seems to be correspondent to the number as well as gender of characters
appearing in the story. Except for human roles, all the animals – specifically dogs – are
personified; thus, they perform as “he” or “she”. After analysing the chapters thoroughly,
we can find here 2627 cases of personal reference (100%). On the average, with a total of
1606 times occuring, singular determinative masculine (he/him/his) accounts for 61.1 % -

Specific
Near
This/these
This/these
Here
(now)
13
6
9
7
17
25
31
Far
That/those
That/those
There
(then)
11
7
4
5
16
18
22
Non-
specific

It
The


Adjunct/submodifier
7 Chapters
General
Same, equal,
identical
7

21
identically
0
Similar,
additional
2
such

So, similarly,
likewise
56
Other, different
38 Otherwise, else,
differently
19


To see these more clearly, let us take the following sentences as examples:
He saw the silent circle, with gleaming eyes, lolling tongues, and silvery breaths drifting upward,
closing upon him as he had seen similar circles close in upon beaten antagonists in the past.
(Chapter 3)
Buck was no less eager, and no less cautious, as he likewise circled back and forth for the advantage.
(Chapter 3)
It would have required an experienced man to keep the top-heavy sled upright, and Hal was not such
a man. (Chapter 5)
With regard to specific comparative, the frequency is quite remarkable. Comparative
adjectives & adverbs, so-, less-, as-, more + adjectives rank first with 51 times of
occurrences. Being on the second scale, Comparative adjectives & adverbs, so-, as-, more-,
less- + adverbs are 47 times repeated. The last group, more, fewer, less, further, so-, as-,
+ quantifier appear 39 times.
The following are some examples of specific comparatives. As the number of
occurrences is quite great, we just give here some typical instances in which specific
comparative references are used as means of cohesion.
Never in all his life had he been so vilely treated, and never in all his life had he been so angry.
(Chapter 1)
They were camped near the long store, where she, in her friendly way, made advances to a husky
dog the size of a full-grown wolf, though not half so large as she. (Chapter 2)
On studying the book thoroughly, it seems to us that superlatives and comparatives
are used quite often. As a matter of fact, comparison is to make distinguishing