VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
*********************

PHAN THI
̣
MAI HƢƠNG FACTORS AFFECTING STUDENTS’ WILLINGNESS TO
COMMUNICATE IN ENGLISH IN CLASSROOM
(NGHIÊN CỨU YÊ
́
U TÔ
́
A
̉
NH HƯƠ
̉
NG ĐÊ
́
N SƯ
̣
TỰ GIÁC GIAO
TIÊ
́
P CU
̉
A SINH VIÊN BĂ

́
U TÔ
́
A
̉
NH HƯƠ
̉
NG ĐÊ
́
N SƯ
̣
TỰ GIÁC GIAO TIÊ
́
P
CA SINH VIÊN BĂ
̀
NG TIÊ
́
NG ANH TRONG LƠ
́
P HO
̣
C)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS Field : English Teaching Methodology
Code : 60140111
Supervisor : Dr Lê Văn Canh


ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to many whose warm support, cheerful encouragement, and
genuine guidance have been deeply appreciated.
First, I would like to express my immerse gratitude to Doctor Lê Văn Canh,
my supervisor, who has patiently guided me through the research process for his
insightful comments, invaluable guidance, thoughtful suggestions and inspiration.
I am profoundly grateful to all those who participated, the wonderful
students at Hai Phong Private University, who acted as subjects.
I would like to make special mention to my husband, who has given me an
unending supply of all sorts of help and whose support has made it possible for me
to complete this study.

context. A mixed-method approach design was employed in order to explore the
different aspects of WTC construct. Data was collected through a questionnaire and
interviews. The participants, 120 Vietnamese tertiary students, completed the WTC
questionnaire. Follow-up interview were then conducted with 12 participants. The
findings of this study shows that students‟ WTC is a complex issue because it is
affected by multiple factors related to the nature of classroom tasks, the students‟
proficiency level and other learner factors. A number of factors that appeared to
affect their WTC in classroom were identified as: self-confidence, language
attitude, self-perceived L2 proficiency, motivation and personality. The results of
this study contribute to the theoretical foundation and methodology of the WTC
construct. This study also provided pedagogical implications for English language
teachers. The limitations of this study and suggestions for future research were also
identified.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENT
PART A: INTRODUCTION 1
1. Rationale 1
2. Aims and objectives of the study 2
3. Research Questions 2

LIST OF REFERENCES 37
APPENDIX A: WTC Questionnaire (English version) I
1

PART A: INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale
Among the four popular foreign languages in Vietnam: English, Chinese, Russian,
and French, English has been the most popular since 1989 in political, economic,
and socio-cultural aspects of Vietnam. One reason for its popularity lies in
Vietnam‟s establishment of diplomatic relationships with 174 countries, and
economic and trade ties with almost all countries and territories in the world.
Evidently, English competence enhances the presence of Vietnamese because
English is used as a means of communication in these organizations. In addition, the
current popularity of English in Vietnam arises from common demand because
English is the key to science, technology and commerce. In terms of how the
popularity of English has influenced common Vietnamese, the processes of
modernization, industrialization, integration, and globalization provide the
Vietnamese with more opportunity to improve their study, work, and living
conditions. However, these processes and opportunities also force them to work
harder to be better prepared for social demands. In particular, Vietnamese more and
more are required to be able to communicate in English and even be fluent in
English for work and study in an international environment.
Modern language pedagogy attaches a lot of importance to communication and
training language learners who are able to communicate effectively in the target
language. In a language classroom following communicative approach, language
teachers are eager to have learners who are willing to use the language in class. The
reason is that researches have shown that a lack of willingness to use the language
results in ineffective interaction and language production. So, it is true that the
notion of Willingness to Communicate (WTC) plays a key role in learning a

according to their self-reports?
2. What factors likely affects the students‟ willingness to communicate in the
classroom? 3

4. Scope of the study
The study limits itself to the investigation into how students in one private
university participate in classroom speaking tasks and the factors affecting their
participation. Thus, the study itself is largely a survey study.
5. Methods of the study
A mixed-method approach was adopted in this study to achieve its aims and
objectives.
For the quantitative part of the study, which could find out the general level of
the selected participants‟ WTC, the researcher randomly selected four level 3
classes (30 students each) of students to take part in the questionnaire survey.
For the qualitative part of this study, which could help to find out factors
influencing students‟ WTC, the researcher randomly selected 16 students from the
120 students who had completed the questionnaire to take part in the individual
interviews (four from each class).
6. Design of the study
This thesis consists of three chapters.
Chapter One reviews previous literature and research relevant to the research
questions addressed in this study. It also introduces the fundamental theoretical
knowledge underlying WTC, and reviews some major findings from empirical
research studies concerning L2 WTC. Previous researches are subsequently listed
and as a consequence, two research questions are raised for investigation.
Chapter Two describes the methodological approach employed in the current
study. A mixed-method design is adopted to enrich the data from different

defined as a learner‟s „„readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a
specific person or persons, using a L2” (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 547). As
Dörnyei (2003) points out, competence in the L2 may not be enough. Learners need
to be not only able to communicate but also willing to communicate in the L2.
Research has shown that a learner‟s WTC influences how frequently the learner
actively engages in communicating in the L2 (Cle´ment et al., 2003; Yashima et al.,
2004). Thus MacIntyre et al. (1998) propose that WTC in L2 should be
5

conceptualized as the primary goal of language instruction and as a comprehensive
conceptual framework to describe, explain and predict L2 communication behavior.
1.2 Heuristic Model of WTC in L2
MacIntyre et al. (1998) proposed a conceptual pyramid-shaped structure
incorporating a range of potential linguistic and psychological variables that
appeared to influence WTC in L2 (see Figure 1). The level of conceptualisation,
intergroup communication process, and the issue of time were all integrated in this
pyramid model. WTC was identified as a behavioural intention, the final step to
using a L2 with a specific person. They made a distinction between immediate
situational factors and enduring influences that underlie WTC in the L2. The
situational factors (for example, desire to communicate with a specific person and
state communicative confidence at a given time in a given place), which were seen
as more dependent on the specific situation at a given moment of time, were placed
within the first three layers, from the top of the pyramid. The enduring influences
(for example, intergroup motivation, communicative competence, intergroup
climate, and personality), which were comparatively distal and stable factors,
formed the foundation of the pyramid. This model explores the interrelations among
affective variables influencing WTC in L2 that could explain and predict second
language communication. The significance of this heuristic model lay in it being the
“first attempt at a comprehensive treatment of WTC in the L2” as a situation-based
variable (MacIntyre et al. 1998, p. 558). In this model, L2 WTC is conceptualised at

integrative motivation and frequency of communicating. All these variables were
measured by a questionnaire survey. The results showed that WTC correlated
strongly with motivation in the immersion group but not in the non-immersion
group. WTC was found to be predicted by communication anxiety but not by
perceived competence in the immersion group. The reverse was true for the non-
immersion group – WTC was predicted by perceived competence but not
communication anxiety. These results lent support to the pyramid model; that
communication anxiety, perceived competence and motivation have a direct
relationship with WTC. A number of recent studies tested MacIntyre et al.‟s (1998)
heuristic WTC model in the EFL contexts including Chinese, Turkish and Korean
contexts (Atay & Gokce, 2007; Cetinkaya, 2005; Kim, 2005; Peng, 2007b). The
studies carried out in these different EFL contexts suggested that WTC is strongly
predicted by motivation, attitudes towards international community, perceived
linguistic self-confidence (a combination of communication anxiety and perceived
communicative competence), and desire to learn English. Peng (2007b) partially
replicated MacIntyre et al.‟s (2003b) study by examining the possible relationship
between integrative motivation and L2 WTC among Chinese college students
learning English in an intensive programme (n = 174). The WTC questionnaire
adapted from MacIntyre et al. (2001) was used to measure the effects of motivation
and social contexts on L2 WTC. Integrative motivation was measured by the
Attitude/Motivation Test Battery used in Hashimoto‟s (2002) study. Peng‟s findings
showed motivation to be the strongest predictor of L2 WTC and that integrative
motivation accounted for a small proportion of variation in L2 WTC. Attitudes
towards the learning situation were not found to predict L2 WTC. Therefore, Peng
argued that motivation was an important impetus in stimulating learners to
persevere in both L2 learning and possibly L2 communication in an EFL context.
8

Cetinkaya‟s (2005) study examined whether MacIntyre et al.‟s (1998) model
explained the relations among social-psychological, linguistic and communication

personality, self-confidence, attitudes, and motivation (MacIntyre&Charos, 1996;
Yashima, 2002). Among a number of individual variables, self-confidence has been
frequently, by many researchers, found to be the most immediate antecedent of L2
WTC (Yashima, 2002). A number of factors have also been identified as directly or
indirectly predictive of WTC, including personality (MacIntyre&Charos, 1996), L2
attitude and international posture (Yashima et al., 2004), gender and age, and social
support and learning contexts (Clément, Baker &MacIntyre, 2003). Some other
factors such as security, excitement, responsibility, and classroom environment and
so on, have also been found to have an influence on WTC (Kang, 2005). In this
study, four most popular underlying factors that affect students‟ WTC in class
according to previous studies will be discussed.
1.3.1 Self-confidence
In regard to self-confidence, Clément (1986) claimed that it included two
constructs: perceived competence and lack of anxiety, and these two constructs
represent relatively enduring personal characteristics. In contrast to Clément‟s
concept of trait-like self-confidence, MacIntyre et al. (1998) suggested state
communicative self-confidence as indicated in Layer III of their WTC model was a
momentary feeling of confidence which might be transient within a given situation.
For example, in an evaluation situation, an L2 interlocutor may experience a very
high state of anxiety and low perceived competence, even though the individual
may possess considerable and persistent self-confidence across other situations.
According to MacIntyre et al. (1998), L2 self-confidence in Layer IV of their WTC
model is somewhat different from the state communication self-confidence in Layer
III, in that L2 self-confidence in Layer IV stands for “the overall belief in being able
to communicate in L2 in an adaptive and efficient manner”. This self-confidence
can be affected by two components: “the self-evaluation of L2 skills, a judgment
made by the speaker about the degree of mastery achieved in L2”; and language
anxiety when using an L2. Communicative competence, together with experience,
10



success in SLA. In order to describe language attitudes, Gardner (1980) refers that
“the concept „attitude‟ will be used to denote the sum total of a man‟s instinctions
and feelings, prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, fears, threats and convictions
about any specified topic”. In regard to the roles of attitudes in relation to the
learning situation in SLA, L2 researchers have hypothesized that positive attitudes
toward the learning situation are important for the success of SLA. It is likely that
L2 students with positive attitudes tend to consider L2 learning as enjoyable and
beneficial, which may motivate the L2 students to be more active in performing
classroom activities in the L2. Naiman et al. (1975) found significant correlations
between the measure of attitudes and L2 students‟ volunteering by raising a hand in
class, and between L2 students‟ volunteering and the amount of effort they spent on
L2 learning; L2 students with positive attitudes toward L2 learning would volunteer
more in class, and reported studying hard to learn the L2 (cited in Gardner et al.,
1978). It is probable that more active participation and effort in L2 learning can
enable L2 students to achieve more significant results in L2 learning. Consequently,
language attitude is an important factor in predicting the level of success in SLA.
1.3.4 Motivation
In agreement with many other L2 researchers, Gardner (1985, 1988) argues that
motivation is one of the important factors in predicting the success of SLA. Gardner
claims that motivated L2students extend their active and personal involvement in
L2 learning, which can enable them to achieve successful L2 acquisition. Because
of the importance of motivation in SLA, L2 researchers argue that it is important for
L2 educators and researchers to understand why L2 students learn their target L2.
To explore factors of influencing the L2 student‟s motivation, Gardner and Lambert
(1959) first made a distinction between instrumental and integrative motivation.
According to Gardner and Lambert, instrumental motivation refers to the L2
student‟s desire to learn his/her target L2in order to achieve his/her practical
purposes such as acquiring good grades in school, securing a job, or obtaining a
promotion. On the other hand, integrative motivation is related to the L2 student‟s

actually engaging in L2 communication. He also found that factors such as
13

perceived politeness, the role of physical locality, the presence of the opposite sex,
mood, and the topic under discussion were minor influences affecting WTC.
House‟s study was the first attempt to enable learners‟ perceptions of WTC to be
voiced and heard. Cao and Philp (2006) compared self-reported WTC and WTC
behaviour in class. This study employed triangulation as a technique to compare
ESL learners‟ (n = 8) self-report of WTC to their actual WTC behaviour in three
interactional classroom settings (whole class, small groups and dyads) and how
their WTC behaviour differed in each of these contexts. The results indicate that
learners‟ self-reports of WTC are not necessarily predictive of their actual
classroom behaviour. It was also found that situational WTC could change in the
classroom across the three interactional contexts, under the influence of situational
variables such as group size, familiarity with interlocutors, the familiarity and
interest of topic of discussion, and the confidence of the learner in relation to the
task. This study supported the use of classroom observation as an appropriate way
to tap situational WTC in L2 in class. Another study that employed the
triangulation technique in investigating WTC in L2 was Liu‟s (2005) study. This
study examined Chinese tertiary students‟ reticence in oral English language
classroom by employing questionnaires, classroom observations and reflective
journals (n = 27). The study found that the factors that prohibited students‟ WTC in
class were lack of practice, low English proficiency, lack of self-confidence,
anxiety, cultural beliefs, personality, and fear of losing face. This study highlighted
the importance of searching for reticence-coping strategies to promote learners‟
WTC in class.
Weaver‟s (2004) studies examined situational variables underlying WTC in L2
classrooms in relation to task types. His study (2004) investigated Japanese
learners‟ WTC (n = 1104) within an L2 classroom at tertiary level. Unlike previous
studies that exclusively adopted the WTC scale developed by McCroskey and
15

CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH MOTHODOLOGY
2.1 Methodological Approach
The key issue associated with designing a mixed-method research design is how to
combine quantitative and qualitative research effectively. A quantitative research
approach focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of
people. In contrast, a qualitative approach is based on descriptive data that does not
make use of statistical procedures. Quantitative and qualitative approaches have
their own separate strengths and weaknesses. Quantitative research can produce
reliable and replicable data that is generalizable to other contexts, but is generally
not very sensitive in uncovering the reasons for particular observations or the
dynamics underlying the examined situation or phenomenon. That is, the general
exploratory capacity of quantitative research is rather limited (Dörnyei, 2007).
Qualitative research, on the other hand, has traditionally been seen as an effective
way of exploring new, uncharted areas (Dörnyei, 2007), and describing second
language acquisition in its natural context. However, Duff (2006) has warned that
although qualitative research may be helpful in providing insights into a
phenomenon, the specific conditions or insights may not apply broadly to others
(Dörnyei, 2007). Therefore, mixed -method research which is a combination of
quantitative and qualitative methods within a single research project has become
common in recent years. In this way , we can gain a better understanding of a
complex phenomenon by converging numeric trends from quantitative data and
specific details from qualitative data (Dörnyei, 2007), and therefore arrive at a more
multidimensional and accurate view of the process of second language acquisition .
As a result, combining a qualitative approach with a quantitative approach in the
current study should provide fuller, deeper, more meaningful answers to a single
research question (Johnson & Christensen, 2008), and enrich the ability of the

from the 120 students who had completed the questionnaire to take part in the
individual interviews (four from each class). The sampling procedure for the
interviews was simple random sampling, in which each of these 120 students had
“an equal and independent chance of being selected” (Fraenkel&Wallen, 2000).
17

The interview participants were randomly selected by the researcher. It was hoped
that the researcher would be able to interview both willing and less willing -to-
communicate students. The oral English class was offered once per week in a forty-
five-minute session taught by native Vietnamese English teachers, who are all
professionally qualified, at least with Master Degree on Pedagogical Teaching
Methodology. Interview data were collected on an MP3 recorder.
2.3.1 Instruments
2.3.1.1 Questionnaires
A questionnaire is one of the most common methods used to collect data on
attitudes and opinions from a large group of participants, and has been used to
investigate a wide variety of questions in SLA. The advantages of collecting data
through the use of a questionnaire include the provision of answers to questions in a
systematic and disciplined way, relative ease of construction, extreme versatility,
and the ability to gather a large amount of information in a comparatively short
amount of time and a readily usable form (Dörnyei, 2007). Moreover, the aim of
using questionnaire in research fits the purpose of the study.
In this study, Cao‟s (2009) questionnaire was adopted. The questionnaire consisted
of 15 items related to students‟ willingness to engage in communication tasks
during class time. It covered situations or tasks that students were familiar with or
found easy to imagine, and with differing amounts of cognitive demand. The 15-
item WTC scale was administered with instructions which asked students to
indicate how willing they would be to initiate communication on a percentage scale
(0-100%) in each of the 15 situations. The questionnaire was translated into
Vietnamese so it was much easier for students to understand and complete it.

participants‟ WTC. Quantitative data from questionnaires were also factor analyzed.
These factors then become themes that were compared with themes analyzed from
the qualitative interview data. Interview data were analyzed qualitatively in order to
reveal factors that seem to contribute to the selected participants‟ willingness to
communicate in English in classroom. Then the research‟s result will be compared
to previous studies on this field.