VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ KĂN

The Implementation of Task-based Language Teaching:
A Case Study of the Upper- Secondary School
(Việc thực hiện phương pháp giảng dạy ngoại ngữ dựa vào các nhiệm vụ được giao:
Một điển cứu ở trường Trung học phổ thông) M.A Minor Thesis

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 601410
M.A course: 18

HANOI, 2011
HANOI, 2011
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Lists of abbreviations

ELT
CLT
TBLT
TBI
PPP
EFL
MOET
T
Ss
Vs
English Language Teaching
Communicative Language Teaching
Task-Based Language Teaching
Task - Based Instruction
Presentation- Practice- Production
English as a Foreign Language
Ministry of Education and Training
Teacher
Students
versus

1.1.1 Background to Task-Based Language Teaching…………………… …… 5
1.1.2. Defining TBLT……………………………………………………………….6
1.1.3. Definitions of Task………………………………………………………… 7
1.1.4. Tasks vs. Exercises………………………………………………………… 9
1.1.5. Characteristics of TBLT…………………………………………………… 9
1.1.6. Theoretical Framework of TBLT Implementation………………………….10
1. 2. Review of Issues in the Implementation of TBLT………………………………11
1.2.1. Factors Related to Grammar-based Examination………………………… 12
1.2.2. Large Classes……………………………………………………………… 13
1.2.3. Socio-cultural Constraints………………………………………………… 13

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1.2.4. Inadequately Trained Teachers……………………… ………………… 14
1.2.5. Difficulties Caused by TBLT…………………………………………………15
1.3. Summary………………………………………………………………………….15
Chapter 2: Methodology
2.1. The Fitness of Case Study to the Research Purpose………………………… 16
2.2. Research Questions……………………………………… ………………… 16
2.3. Context of the Study………………………………… ……………………… 16
2.3.1. New English Curriculum………………………………………………… 16
2.3.2. The Case…………………………………………………………………… 18
2.4. Participants………………………………… ……………………………… 18
2.5. Instruments……………………………… ………………………………… 19
2.6. Data Collection Procedures……………… ……………………………… 20
2.7. Data Analysis Procedure………………… ……………………………………21
2.8. Summary……………………………………………………………………… 21
Chapter 3: Findings……………………………………………… 22
Chapter 4: Discussion …………………………………………….…………………36
Part C: Conclusion
1. Summary of the Major Findings……………………………………………… 38

consistently. Research conducted across East Asian contexts has suggested that curricular
policies have had limited overall impact on English language teaching, which remains
traditional with an explicit grammar-teaching focus ( Hu, 2005; Carless, 2007; Zhang, 2007)

Why is there a gap between government curricular innovations and the practice in actual
classrooms? I believe teachers play a key role in the success or failure of a planned innovation,
which is shared with Nunan (1989) and Carless (2001), because they are the executive
decision makers in the actual setting in which the intended innovation is to be realized- the
classroom.

It is important that the knowledge and attitudes of teachers regarding the innovation (here
TBLT) should be taken into account before, during and after the implementation phase. This

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means that their opinions need to be reported and their voices heard. While there are some
studies on teacher attitudes towards, and beliefs about TBLT (Carless, 2003; Jeon & Hahn,
2006), there has been little research into how teachers implement it in their actual classrooms.
Little research has come to light with regard to English language teachers in Vietnam, apart
from a small-scale study carried out by Canh & Barnard (2009). For these reasons, I undertook
a case study of an upper-secondary school English teachers‟ understandings of, attitudes
towards and implementation of TBLT in Vietnam.

2. Aims of the Study

Teachers are frequently required to implement pedagogic innovations developed by external
agents who may or may not be familiar with the teachers‟ viewpoints or the specific classroom
context in which the innovation is to be implemented. If teachers‟ views are not sufficiently
taken account of, the already challenging nature of implementing something new may be
exacerbated (Carless, 2003). Thus, the aim of the paper is to provide an investigation of the
beliefs and the understandings of a small number of language teachers and a picture of how

interview was conducted with some guided questions. The interviewees were given the guided
questions beforehand in the form of a handout for better preparation of ideas and thoughts.
The class observation enabled me to investigate what the teachers actually did in the
classroom. Field notes were made use of to observe all skills and language focus lessons.
Post-observation interviews were employed to provide triangulated data. They focused on
critical issues arising from the observed lessons.

6. Significance of the Study

The results of this study are important in the following aspects:
First, they partly indicate that curricular policies promoting the use of TBLT at the national
level do not automatically translate into the use of TBLT in actual English language
classrooms.

Second, they highlight the need to bridge the gap between what is intended by teaching
innovation designers and what is actually implemented by classroom teachers.

Third, they suggest that teachers in Vietnam need to make further efforts to develop and
generate, within task-based approach, classroom techniques appropriate to their conditions.

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7. Organization of the Study

The study is organized in three parts.
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Chapter 1: Literature Review

There is a wide literature on Task-Based Language Teaching, but as Candlin (2001) observes,
there is a lack of empirical research on TBLT in school foreign language contexts.
Particularly, how teachers implement the innovation in pedagogy is an important area which
does not receive sufficient attention.

In this part, I will review the literature on TBLT implementation. Specifically, definitions of
tasks and TBLT, characteristics of TBLT and theoretical frameworks of TBLT
implementation will be reviewed. Additionally, the studies carried out to date will be revised
to identify issues emerging in the implementation of TBLT which might occur in our own
teaching and learning contexts. Due to the limit of a minor thesis paper, only some studies
associated with implementing TBLT in Asian contexts are analysed.

1.1. What is Task-Based Language Teaching?
In this section, the background to TBLT, definitions of task and TBLT, the distinction
between tasks and exercises and the characteristics of TBLT are presented.

1.1.1. Background to Task-Based Language Teaching

Task-Based Language Teaching , also called Task-Based Instruction (TBI) which has attracted


TBLT is not a monolithic teaching method, but an adaptable approach to language teaching.
Thus, the term “TBLT” is not easy to define, and choice of a definition is made more difficult.
The term was coined, and the conception was developed, by second language acquisition
researchers and language educators, largely in reaction to empirical accounts of teacher-
dominated, form-oriented second language classroom practice (Long & Norris, 2000). Long
(1985) and Prabhu (1987) take the view that TBLT is an approach to language education in
which students are given functional tasks that encourage them to focus primarily on meaning
exchange and to use language for real world, non-linguistic purposes. As Ellis notes, „there is
no single way of doing TBLT‟ (2009, p. 224), the conceptualisation of TBLT is also
provided in Long & Crookes (1992), Skehan (1998) and Willis (1996). In this study, a useful
definition of TBLT that will be used is provided by Samuda & Bygate, who write that task-
based language teaching refers to „contexts where tasks are the central unit of instruction:
they “drive” classroom activity, they define curriculum and syllabuses and they determine
modes of assessment‟ (2008, p. 58). This definition, first of all, directs our attention to the
most common characteristic of TBLT, i.e. the use of tasks as a central component in the
language classroom because they provide better contexts for activating learner acquisition
processes and promoting L2 learning. They also provide the basis for an entire language
curriculum, which according to Ellis (2003), shows that TBLT constitutes a strong version of

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CLT. In my view, this definition is relatively simple but comprehensive, as it covers sufficient
features of TBLT in nature.

1.1.3. Definitions of Task

As mentioned above, tasks form the focus of TBLT. Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 228)
suggest that this is because „tasks are believed to foster processes of negotiation, modification,
rephrasing, and experimentation that are at the heart of second language learning.‟


involved in task performance and the outcome of a task.

Ellis (2003, p. 16) lists six „criterial features of a task‟. He mentions all aspects listed by
Skehan above, and also includes the concept of task as a „workplan for learner activity‟, which
„requires learners to employ cognitive processes‟, and „can involve any of the four language
skills‟. This definition implies that tasks provide a purpose for the use and learning of
language other than simply learning language items for their own sake and that to perform the
task learners are required to process the thought.

Adopting this approach, Willis & Willis (2007, 2009) develop a set of criteria for determining
how „task-like‟ a given activity is:

A task has a number of defining characteristics, among them: does it engage the learners‟ interest; is
there a primary focus on meaning; is success measured in terms of non-linguistic outcome rather
than accurate use of language forms; and does it relate to real world activities? The more confidently we
can answer yes to each of these questions the more task-like the activity.
(Willis & Willis, 2009, p. 4)
Willis & Willis‟s (2009) criteria are not widely accepted. For example, Harmer (2009, p. 173)
considers these criteria „less than helpful‟ and finds in this approach to defining tasks „a lack
of willingness to pin down exactly what is on offer‟ that is „less than totally persuasive‟
(2009, p. 174). Many teachers can probably relate to Harmer‟s point. At least, one study
(Littlewood, 2007) has found that conceptual uncertainty about tasks and TBLT has affected
its implementation in many East Asian EFL contexts.

The following provides teachers with a more precise definition of a language learning
task. Samuda & Bygate (2008, p. 69) carefully consider the task definition literature
before defining a second language pedagogic task as:

a holistic activity which engages language use in order to achieve some non-linguistic outcome
while meeting a linguistic challenge, with the overall aim of promoting language learning, through

which effective completion of the task is accorded priority.
1.1.5. Characteristics of TBLT

Translated into classroom practice, TBLT appears in both weak and strong versions. Weak
versions, or what Ellis (2003) refers to as “task-supported language teaching,” use tasks for
communicative practice but in other respects follow a conventional grammar or function-
based syllabus. Strong versions, referred to by Ellis as “task-based language teaching,” treat
the task as the central unit of curriculum and lesson planning. The tendency for teachers to
translate officially mandated TBLT into what at best could be called task-supported language
teaching is a theme addressed in a number of places in this study.

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Within the varying interpretations of TBLT related to classroom practice, recent studies
exhibit three major features: TBLT is compatible with a learner-centered educational
philosophy (Ellis, 2003; Nunan, 2005; Richards & Rodgers, 2001); it consists of particular
components such as goal, procedure, specific outcome (Murphy, 2003; Nunan, 2004; Skehan,
1998); it advocates content-oriented meaningful activities rather than linguistic forms
(Carless, 2002; Littlewood, 2004).

The learning principle underlying this approach is that learners will learn language best if they
engage in activities that have interactional authenticity (Bachman, 1990), i.e. require them to
use language in ways that closely resemble how language is used naturally outside the
classroom. Whereas more traditional approaches to language teaching assume that learners
need to be taught some language before they can communicate, TBLT is premised on the
assumption that learners best learn a language through communicating, as in first language
acquisition and naturalistic L2 acquisition. Various learning principles underpin this view.
Krashen (1981) proposes that learners will acquire language when they are exposed to
„comprehensible input‟ and are motivated to attend to the input. Long (1996) has argued that
acquisition is best served when learners participate in the negotiation of meaning (i.e.

(1998b, p. 129) criticizes that there is insufficient detail as to how plans can be made and
systematic teaching is arranged.

Ellis (2003), however, outlines the framework of task-based instruction into three different
stages: pre-, during- and post-task stages more specifically. The pre - task stage is related to
introducing the task, presenting the model task and planning the time for completion of the
task. In during – task stage, learners perform the task by using different performance options
and information processing options. The last stage is the post - task stage which incorporates
the activities like reporting, conscious-raising and repeating the task. The post - task is form-
focused as in the Willis model.

1. 2. Review of Issues in the Implementation of TBLT
TBLT has been subjected to criticism by some teachers and educators. Among these critics
are Seedhouse (1999, 2005), who has challenged TBLT on the grounds that „task‟ does not
constitute a valid construct around which to build a language teaching programme, that TBLT
results in impoverished language use that is of little inquisitional value, and Widdowson
(2003), who has argued that the criteria for defining tasks are overly loose and that TBLT over
emphasizes „authentic‟ language use. In addition, Burrows (2008), Sheen (2003) and Swan

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(2005) have insisted that it lacks sufficient focus on form. Furthermore, Bruton (2002) and
Swan (2005) have claimed that it is unsuitable for low-level learners.

TBLT has been adopted by several Asian governments as the national approach to English
language pedagogy. However, studies show that TBLT may not directly impact actual
language teaching practice, (Li, 1998) in South Korea; (Carless, 1999) in Hong Kong;
(Gorsuch, 2000) in Japan; and (Canh and Barnard, 2009) in Vietnam.

A large body of research has investigated the difficulties associated with implementing TBLT
in East Asian contexts. Because full accounting of these issues is beyond the scope of this

communicative and skills-based testing into exams will not guarantee enactment of tasks in
language classrooms. As Carless (2007) pointed out, teachers might still consider traditional
methods of teaching as more appropriate, regardless of the manner of testing.

1.2.2. Large Classes
The set-up of many English language classes in Asia, particularly at public secondary schools,
is not conducive to the use of tasks in class. A frequently mentioned concern is large class
sizes, which was noted as a barrier to change in Korean (Jeon, 2006; Li, 1998), Hong Kong
(Carless, 2002), mainland Chinese (Zhang, 2007), schools. Li (1998) pointed out that large
classes were inherently difficult to manage, and thus challenged teacher ability to make
changes to their teaching. Littlewood (2007) noted that it was particularly difficult to
implement TBLT in large classes because of logistical issues associated with students
communicating in groups. It should be noted, however, that many of the issues associated with
large classes are relevant only to the use of interactive pair work or small group tasks.

A related issue to class size is the presence of students with multiple ability levels in each
class. Because primary and secondary students might be streamed by age rather than
proficiency, mixed proficiency classes were common in Asian contexts (Butler, 2005). Chao
and Wu (2008) pointed out that the inclusion of students at a range of proficiency levels in
Taiwanese schools made it difficult for teachers to select appropriate tasks for their classes. To
address this issue, Tinker Sachs (2007) proposed promoting cooperative learning, whereby
students of different proficiency levels could help one another.

1.2.3. Socio-cultural Constraints

Asian teachers traditionally relied on a strong teacher-fronted information transfer model of
teaching to maintain classroom order (Cortazzi & Jin, 2001), and good classroom management
was often defined in terms of volume, with students individually working quietly and not
causing disruption (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996). Yet, task-based approaches call for a range of
participatory structures (e.g., whole class, small group, pair, individual, Ellis, 2003). Thus,

schools in adopting task-based innovations has led to minimal teacher development efforts in
mainland China, while sustained, grounded, and culturally sensitive teacher development may
be required for real change in the enacted curriculum (Carless, 2007). Because TBLT requires
teachers to adapt materials and juggle classroom roles to serve the communication needs of
their learners, using tasks effectively in the classroom requires understanding of the nature of
tasks and the ways they can promote learning (Ellis, 2003). In many contexts, teachers have

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not had opportunities to gain sufficient understanding of tasks and task-based teaching to be
able to implement TBLT in their own classrooms. Clark et al., (1999) identified vague
understanding of TBLT as a main factor that limited the ability of Hong Kong teachers to
implement the new curriculum, a finding echoed by Zhang (2007) for teachers in mainland
China and Butler (2005) for teachers in Korea. Carless (2002) pointed out that even some of
the teacher educators involved in promoting the Hong Kong task-based curriculum expressed
uncertainty about the nature of tasks and about the effectiveness of holistic learning.

1.2.5. Difficulties Caused by TBLT

Carless (2004) pointed out that the strong version of TBLT (language is learned by taking part
in communication and without explicit instruction on grammar) was not suitable in Hong
Kong. He suggested that TBLT needed flexibility in its implementation so that it became more
suitable in local context. He proposed a new approach situated task-based approach which is
claimed to involve grammar in pre-task stage, relationship between the task and the
examinations, and reading and writing skills, too. The study also indicates that grammar
should be taught directly in pre-task stage.

1.3. Summary
The literature review presented in this chapter shows that task-based approaches emphasize
communication of meaning rather than study of grammatical form as the starting point for
learning activities. The content is specified holistically in terms of „tasks‟. An essential feature

understanding of the innovation from the teachers‟ viewpoints. Notwithstanding limitations of
generalisability from small samples, detailed case study data can provide what Bassy (1999)
refers to as „fuzzy propositions‟ or „fuzzy generalisations‟ i.e. tentative general statements
which lack scientific generalisability but are likely to be a useful reference point for teachers
and/or researchers to compare with their own contexts.

2.2. Research Questions
The central focus of the study was to explore teachers‟ implementation of TBLT in their actual
classroom. The key research questions that guided the study as follows:
1. What are teachers‟ understandings of, and attitudes towards TBLT?
2. To what extent do the teachers implement TBLT in their actual classrooms?
3. What factors impact on the implementation of TBLT?

2.3. Context of the Study

2.3.1. New English Curriculum 17
In Vietnam a newly documented English language curriculum was officially approved and
institutionalized for all grades and school types nation-wide from Grade 6 through to Grade 12
in 2006. It aims to enable school pupils to:
a. communicate in English at the basic at the basic level in all modes of communication, i.e., listening,
speaking, reading and writing
b. master the basic formal knowledge of the English language
c. have general understanding of, and a positive attitude towards, the cultures of English-speaking
countries.
(Ministry of Education and Training, 2006, p. 5)
In addition, this document states that „communicative skills are the goal of the teaching of
English at the secondary school while formal knowledge of the language serves as the means

Yen Phong Upper-Secondary School No1, a state-run school, is located in a town in Bac Ninh,
which has a key industrial zone of the north. It is a large school with 2,100 students in the
three grades (Grades 10 to 12). The average class size in this school is around 50 and the
classrooms are well-equipped with furniture, light, drinking water, computers, LCD
projectors, cassette players, screens and blackboards. Inside the classroom, students sit in long
rows with 5 students being in one row.

There are 14 English–language teachers whose teaching experience varies from 4 to 20 years.
Two of them are male, and the rest are female. All have university degrees in teaching English
as a Foreign Language, and most of them have twice participated in textbook training
workshops run by key teachers.

With regard to students, there are around 50 students of mixed ability in each class. Students at
Yen Phong Upper-Secondary School have less or no exposure to authentic English. The
majority of them learn English just because it is a compulsory school subject and they learn it
just to pass the national examinations. They do not have an obvious communicative need in
the target language. All they need is a sufficiently good knowledge of grammar and
vocabulary of the target language to pass the national grammar-based examinations.

2.4. Participants
To complete the aims of this study, typical–case sampling strategy were used. Prospective
case teachers were identified by review of extant demographic data. Three teachers were

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selected to participate in the study. All of them are from Yen Phong Upper-Secondary School
No 1 in Bac Ninh province. They were selected for the study based on the following relevant
attributes: young and competent teachers, open-minded in responding to questions of my
interview, confident enough in their teaching to be observed in the classroom, professionally
motivated to take part in the study, aware of the study‟s demands and willing to participate on
that basis. To ensure confidentiality, the pseudonyms (An, Anh, Oanh) were used throughout

5 years
She both finished the bachelor course and master
course majoring in English in College of Foreign
Languages, Vietnam National University, Hanoi. Her
master professionalism is in ELT methodology.
Table 3.1: Teacher participants

2.5. Instruments
Since this is a multimethod case study, three instruments of data collection were used to
achieve the triangulation, i.e. classroom observations, semi-structured interviews, and post-

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observation interviews. This part is intended to introduce the reasons why the research tools
fit the purposes of the study.

As Hopkins (1993) (cited in Mc Donough & Mc Donough, 2005) describes, observation as a
„pivotal activity‟ with a crucial role to play in classroom research, teachers‟ personal-
professional growth, and school development as a whole. In fact, class observation is one of
the most common and important data-collection techniques in case studies because it enables
the researcher to investigate in one specific aspect or the whole load of teaching and learning
in class, i.e. teacher‟s management, facilitation and monitor of class for learning tasks made
use of; to investigate their knowledge of teaching methodology through what teachers do in
class, and the involvement of students on tasks; to know the way of co-operations and
interactions between students and students and between teacher and students through the task
process.

Interviewing is an effective research instrument to get real statistics of any aspects in life. It
may be used as the primary research tool or as a checking mechanism to triangulate data
gathered from other sources (Mc Donough & Mc Donough, 2005). A semi-structured
interview first gives the interviewee a degree of power and control over the course of the