INVESTIGATING HOW GENERAL EDUCATION MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACHERS
SUPPORT THE SOCIAL INCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

by

Rebecca Lee Canges A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2010
Copyright 2010 Rebecca Lee Canges


All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Bo
x 1346
Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346
i

DEDICATION

I am under no illusion that I could have accomplished this without the unwavering
support of my family and I dedicate this to them.
To Thien, I cannot fully express the depth of my appreciation for your support
during this process. Not to mention all of the other "projects" I've taken on within the
years that you have known me. You have made many sacrifices...and I appreciate every
one of them. Can you believe it? No more school!
To Cooper, you have served as my inspiration from the beginning. Your laughter
kept me going when I felt overwhelmed...and watching you grow has inspired me to be a
better person, a better teacher, and the best mother I can be. You are everything I ever
hoped for and more.
To my mom, your faith in me is truly amazing. Thank you for providing me with

years. It fills my heart to know that I have such caring, supportive and loving people
surrounding me.
Finally, to the educators that shared this three year journey with me. Thank you
for the laughs and words of encouragement along the way. I am proud to call you my
friends...and look forward to calling you doctor!
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. ii
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW ...........................................................................................1
Definition of Terms .................................................................................................14
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .....................................................15
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................51
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ..........................................................................................66
FIGURE 1 ……………………………………………………………………….69
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................101
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................124
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................136

general education teachers that participated in this study reported that the following
strategies were essential to increasing the social acceptance of students with special needs
in their classrooms (1) Arranging the Environment, (2) Establishing a Tone of Respect in
the Classroom, (3) Providing Instructional Support, (4) Providing Peer Support, and (5)
Providing Direct Instruction for Social Support. However, classroom observations and
results from student interviews revealed significant discrepancies between the teacher's
knowledge of the strategies and their practice.
1

CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW

Securing acceptance in society can be a major obstacle for individuals with
special needs. Before the passage of Public Law 94-142, commonly known as the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1975, students with special needs
were educated in learning environments that were segregated from their non-disabled
peers, often receiving a sub-par education within institutions and specialized schools. In
some cases, parents were forced to pay for private schools because public schools did not
provide appropriate educational settings for their children (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010).
Schools are, possibly, the most important venue for social opportunities for children and
youth. Yet, through their use of labeling and segregation, schools unintentionally foster
the development of negative attitudes towards students with special needs. More often
than not, individuals with special needs are viewed as different and treated as somehow
less than others making it increasingly difficult for them to be socially accepted and
viewed as equal members of the school community (Swaim & Morgan, 2001).
Perhaps one of the greatest challenges faced by individuals with special needs lies

education curriculum to the maximum extent possible” (IDEA-2007, Sec. 601 (c) (5)

3

(A)).As a result of legal mandates to protect the rights of individuals with special needs,
the move toward full-inclusion and educating students with special needs in the Least
Restrictive Environment (LRE) has become more prevalent.
Full inclusion refers to providing education for students with special needs,
regardless of the severity or type of disability, in the general education classroom for the
entire school day (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010). Advocates of inclusion maintain that all
students have the right to be educated along-side typical peers, and believe that by being
included in a general education classroom, students with special needs will experience
stronger academic and social achievements (Bunch & Valeo, 2004). Simultaneously,
proponents of inclusion feel that the stigma that exists about individuals with special
needs can be reduced when students with special needs are educated with their typical
peers (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996).Studies have shown that when students with special
needs are included in general education classrooms they improve their test performance,
have a higher rate of meeting Individualized Education Program (IEP) goals, and increase
their chances of completing high school and attending college (Rea, McLaughlin, &
Walther-Thomas, 2002). Family members of individuals with special needs that are
included in general education classrooms have pointed out that their children have greater
access to positive role models, increase their self-esteem, are more likely to form
friendships, and are better prepared for the real world (McLeskey, 2007).
While our education system continues to move toward more inclusive practices,
some fear that placement in the general education classroom is neither effective nor
appropriate for every student with a special need. Opponents of the inclusion movement

4

express concern stating that general education teachers are not prepared to educate

2004) and are often the cause behind students with special needs feeling socially isolated.
Children bring a set of social interaction skills to social settings, such as a
classroom. However, many children with special needs possess social difficulties which
may prohibit their ability to engage a peer and establish friendships (Court & Givon,
2003). Teachers have revealed that typically developing students are unsure as to how to
enter into a relationship with their peers with special needs (Colwell, Thompson, &
Burke, 2001) and admit that they struggle with providing the skills and strategies to
facilitate these relationships in their classroom. These findings raise a variety of questions
about the availability of social supports for students with special needs that are included
in general education classrooms as well as how educators can assist in promoting the
social acceptance of students with special needs. Since one of the principal goals of
inclusion for children with special needs is to develop social acceptance and increase
positive social interactions with typical peers, research is needed to identify effective
skills and strategies that general education teachers can utilize to promote the social
acceptance of their students with special needs.

6

Over the past three decades, attempts to generate increased opportunities for
social inclusion and acceptance for students with special needs has focused on teaching
social skills to the target student with special needs (Sapon-Shevin, Dobbelaere,
Corrigan, Goodman, & Mastin, 1998). Although appropriate social behaviors typically
increase as a result of social skills interventions (McIntosh, Vaughn, & Zaragoza, 1991)
studies have shown that there is little correlation between the implementation of social
skills interventions and an increase in social acceptance of students with special needs
(Vaughn, McIntosh, & Spencer-Rowe, 1991). School-wide programs such as Circle of
Friends (Patterson, Liu, Goodvin, Hummel, & Nance, 2008) and Best Buddies (Grenot-
Scheyer, Staub, Peck, & Schwartz, 1998) have also been implemented to aid in the social
acceptance of students with special needs. These programs center on recruiting students
without disabilities in “befriending” a student with special needs. While such programs

can deepen over time; eventually contributing to a negative self-image and issues with
proper social functioning as an adult (Court & Givon, 2003). While schools have
recognized that peer rejection is a persistent problem for students with special needs,
there have been inadequate methods implemented to prevent it.
Although numerous policies and legislation for including students with special
needs have been put in place during the past 30 years, currently, many schools rely on

8

increased contact through the physical act of inclusion to promote the social acceptance
of students with special needs. However, research has revealed that it will take much
more than physically integrating students with special needs to alter typically developing
children's negative attitudes so that they will accept students with special needs into their
social network (Freeman, 2000). In a study that examined the attitudes of students with
varying levels of experience in inclusion programs, Krajewski and Hyde (2000)
concluded that, over time, some small positive shifts in attitude occurred among typically
developing peers when just contact was made. However, a review of the data also
suggested that, by and large, the attitudes of typically developing peers stayed the same
or in some instances, became more negative toward their peers with special needs. The
inconsistencies observed among the student's attitudes were attributed to the schools
over-reliance on contact between the peers as their primary method for breaking down
stereotypes rather than utilizing strategies for creating school and classroom cultures of
acceptance. Findings such as these indicate that contact is not enough; promoting social
acceptance needs to be intentionally facilitated by school personnel; and more
specifically, teachers.
Because children spend a substantial portion of their day in classrooms, the social
support they receive from their teachers could possibly play an important role in their
academic and social functioning. In fact, preliminary research has indicates that a
teacher's attitude toward their students with special needs is one of the most powerful
factors in the students being accepted by their peers (Pavri & Luftig, 2001). Furthermore,

provide a socially accepting classroom for students with special needs. Furthermore, the
perceptions of students with special needs regarding their teacher’s ability to socially
support them in the classroom were investigated. Much of the literature suggests that
students with special needs have a difficult time engaging in social interactions and
forming friendships with their peers with and without disabilities (Freeman, 2000;
Heward, 2006; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010; Sapon-Shevin et al., 1998). In addition, a
vast number of studies have indicated that students without special needs possess
negative attitudes about their peers with special needs (Vaughn & Haager, 1994; Pearl et
al., 1998; Lucas, 1999; Krajewski & Flaherty, 2000; Heward, 2006). Though the
literature on teachers’ attitudes reveal overall positive perceptions toward the concept of
inclusion, limited understanding and inadequate preparation on how to deal with the
social and behavioral differences of students with special needs are frequently cited as
contributors to teacher failure to provide social support for them in the classroom
(Korinek et al., 1999; Pavri & Luftig, 2001). Furthermore, scarce research on the most
effective methods a teacher should employ to support the social inclusion and acceptance
of students with special needs in a general education classroom indicates a gap between
research-based theory and practice. To examine the current practices used to provide a
socially accepting classroom for students with special needs by general education
teachers the following research question will be explored in this study:
How do middle school general education teachers promote the social inclusion of
students with special needs in their classroom?

11

Importance of the Study
Historically, special education research has focused on placement, service-
delivery options, and providing support for general education teachers so that they can

special needs are not condemned to endure the ramifications of social isolation that they
experience as adolescents into their adult lives.
School programs that are developed to increase contact and encourage supportive,
respectful, and responsible relationships among students with and without special needs
have proven to be effective in establishing a more accepting school climate (McDougall
et al., 2004). Without the efforts of a school to promote social acceptance, students tend
to associate only with other students whom they already know and who are most like
themselves (Korinek et al., 1999). However, by creating a classroom and school
community of social acceptance and appreciation of diversity, schools will witness a
culture that exhibits social benefits for all students (Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008) and
could subsequently, aid in the successful implementation of inclusion programs. This
study will contribute to the field by identifying effective strategies implemented by
general education teachers to provide a socially accepting classroom environment for
students with special needs.

13

Limitations and Delimitations
Certain limitations must be considered when reviewing this study. First, the data
was gathered from a relatively small sample of teachers in one school district in Southern
California. Future investigations that focus on larger numbers of teachers and expand
data collection beyond one school district would help to provide evidence regarding
generalizability to these findings.
A second limitation involves the use of interviews as a source of qualitative data.
As Patton (2002) notes, interviews have the possibility of containing distorted
information due to anxiety within the participant. Further, interview data is subject to
recall error of the researcher. To account for these limitations, running field notes were
included within the data to provide checks and corroboration on what is stated during the
interview. In addition, each interview was digitally recorded to account for any possible
recall error.

general education classroom, under the
guidance of the general education classroom
teacher (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010).

Individuals with Disabilities “A law passed in 1975 that specified that all
Education Act (IDEA) children-including those with disabilities formerly
excluded from school-were entitled to a free,
appropriate public education” (Mastropieri &
Scruggs, 2010, p. 3).

Social Acceptance Associated with a child's acceptance level among
his/her peers; how much other children want to be
with that child (Freeman, 2000)

Social Support A process by which individuals feel valued, cared
for and connected to a group of people”
(Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001, p. 391).

Student with special needs Students served by IDEA under one of the 13
disability categories.

Typically developing students Most people look, move, communicate, behave, and
learn in general patterns that we call “typical” or
“average”. Therefore, students who have developed
without any identifiable disabilities, as noted by
IDEA, will be referred to as typically developing.
15

overlook the critical need behind the implementation of social learning opportunities to
promote the acceptance of students with special needs in their classrooms, leaving the
students feeling socially segregated from their peers.
For this literature review, the following key ideas have been identified to support
the research question:
1. Inclusion: A Brief Overview
2. Theoretical Perspective: Contact Theory
3. Barriers to the Social Acceptance of Students with Special Needs
4. The Need for Social Acceptance
5. Building a Classroom Culture of Social Acceptance
Before offering a summary, a literature-based rationale for the methodologies
used in the study to collect data is presented.
Inclusion: A Brief Overview

“Have you ever been at sea in a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut
you in and the great ship, tense and anxious, groped her way toward the shore with plummet and
sounding-line, and you waited with beating heart for something to happen? I was like that ship
before my education began, only I was without compass or sounding line, and no way of knowing
how near the harbor was. "Light! Give me light!" was the wordless cry of my soul, and the light
of love shone on me in that very hour.”
--Helen Keller

As students with special needs have gained equal access to a public education we
have witnessed a move from separate schools and institutions to special education classes
on public school campuses. Further, some students with special needs are now receiving
their education alongside typically developing peers in general education classroom
settings. This placement option, frequently referred to as inclusion, is an educational

17


special needs who express concern that the general education teachers are not prepared to
accommodate their children (Salend & Duhaney, 1999) stating that there are few pre-
service credential programs that explicitly prepare general education teachers to work
with students with special needs (Pugach, Shaker, Shanley, & Yinger, 2002). In addition,
with the recent reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
and the onset of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) there has been a push to educate all
students according to the state standards. Subsequently, some parents of students with
special needs are concerned that their children will not develop the functional life skills
they perceive their children need to be successful in their community (Billingsley &
Albertson, 1999). Finally, though advocates believe that inclusion in the general
education environment will result in increased social opportunities with typical peers;
several studies have shown that students that are included are often ridiculed by students
in their classroom (Pivak, McComas & Laflamme, 2002). Subsequently, opponents of
inclusion elect to keep their students in special education classrooms to “protect” them
from the possibility of rejection from their typical peers.

19

While steeped in controversy, many educators and parents of students with special
needs agree that inclusive placements are associated with positive outcomes in academics
and promote social learning opportunities between students with and without special
needs that would not otherwise occur in a segregated special education classroom
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001; Palmer Fuller, Aurora, & Nelson, 2001; Pavri & Monda-
Amaya, 2001). Placement in the general education environment, even for part of the day,
can provide opportunities for expanding social networks and building authentic
relationships with typical peers (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001). Further, research has
shown that student’s attitudes toward them are more positive when their peers with
special needs are fully included (Freeman, 2000). Not only do they benefit from the
experience of being in an inclusive school environment, but they can increase their
awareness by learning about their peers with special needs (McDougall, et al., 2004).