Oracle® Database
Data Warehousing Guide
10g Release 1 (10.1)
Part No. B10736-01
December 2003
Oracle Database Data Warehousing Guide, 10g Release 1 (10.1)
Part No. B10736-01
Copyright © 2001, 2003 Oracle Corporation. All rights reserved.
Primary Author: Paul Lane
Contributing Authors: Viv Schupmann, Ingrid Stuart (Change Data Capture)
Contributors: Patrick Amor, Hermann Baer, Mark Bauer, Subhransu Basu, Srikanth Bellamkonda,
Randy Bello, Tolga Bozkaya, Lucy Burgess, Rushan Chen, Benoit Dageville, John Haydu, Lilian Hobbs,
Hakan Jakobsson, George Lumpkin, Alex Melidis, Valarie Moore, Cetin Ozbutun, Ananth Raghavan,
Jack Raitto, Ray Roccaforte, Sankar Subramanian, Gregory Smith, Murali Thiyagarajan, Ashish Thusoo,
Thomas Tong, Jean-Francois Verrier, Gary Vincent, Andreas Walter, Andy Witkowski, Min Xiao,
Tsae-Feng Yu
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Subject Oriented............................................................................................................................ 1-2
Integrated....................................................................................................................................... 1-2
Nonvolatile .................................................................................................................................... 1-3
Time Variant.................................................................................................................................. 1-3
Contrasting OLTP and Data Warehousing Environments..................................................... 1-3
Data Warehouse Architectures......................................................................................................... 1-5
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Data Warehouse Architecture (Basic)........................................................................................ 1-5
Data Warehouse Architecture (with a Staging Area).............................................................. 1-6
Data Warehouse Architecture (with a Staging Area and Data Marts) ................................. 1-6
Part II Logical Design
2 Logical Design in Data Warehouses
Logical Versus Physical Design in Data Warehouses .................................................................. 2-2
Creating a Logical Design ................................................................................................................. 2-2
Data Warehousing Schemas.............................................................................................................. 2-3
Star Schemas.................................................................................................................................. 2-4
Other Schemas............................................................................................................................... 2-4
Data Warehousing Objects................................................................................................................ 2-5
Fact Tables...................................................................................................................................... 2-5
Creating a New Fact Table ................................................................................................... 2-5
Dimension Tables ......................................................................................................................... 2-6
Hierarchies.............................................................................................................................. 2-6
Typical Dimension Hierarchy.............................................................................................. 2-7
Unique Identifiers......................................................................................................................... 2-7
Relationships ................................................................................................................................. 2-7
Example of Data Warehousing Objects and Their Relationships.......................................... 2-8
Part III Physical Design
3 Physical Design in Data Warehouses
Moving from Logical to Physical Design....................................................................................... 3-2
Physical Design................................................................................................................................... 3-2

Table Compression and Bitmap Indexes ......................................................................... 5-17
Example of Table Compression and Partitioning........................................................... 5-18
Partition Pruning ........................................................................................................................ 5-19
Pruning Using DATE Columns......................................................................................... 5-20
Avoiding I/O Bottlenecks.................................................................................................. 5-20
Partition-Wise Joins.................................................................................................................... 5-20
Full Partition-Wise Joins..................................................................................................... 5-20
Partial Partition-wise Joins................................................................................................. 5-26
Benefits of Partition-Wise Joins......................................................................................... 5-28
Performance Considerations for Parallel Partition-Wise Joins..................................... 5-29
Partitioning and Subpartitioning Columns and Keys .......................................................... 5-30
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Partition Bounds for Range Partitioning................................................................................. 5-31
Comparing Partitioning Keys with Partition Bounds.................................................... 5-31
MAXVALUE......................................................................................................................... 5-31
Nulls ...................................................................................................................................... 5-32
DATE Datatypes ................................................................................................................. 5-32
Multicolumn Partitioning Keys......................................................................................... 5-33
Implicit Constraints Imposed by Partition Bounds........................................................ 5-33
Index Partitioning....................................................................................................................... 5-33
Local Partitioned Indexes................................................................................................... 5-34
Global Partitioned Indexes................................................................................................. 5-37
Summary of Partitioned Index Types............................................................................... 5-39
The Importance of Nonprefixed Indexes ......................................................................... 5-40
Performance Implications of Prefixed and Nonprefixed Indexes................................ 5-40
Guidelines for Partitioning Indexes.................................................................................. 5-41
Physical Attributes of Index Partitions............................................................................. 5-42
6 Indexes
Using Bitmap Indexes in Data Warehouses................................................................................... 6-2
Benefits for Data Warehousing Applications .......................................................................... 6-2

Materialized View Schema Design Guidelines................................................................. 8-9
Loading Data into Data Warehouses....................................................................................... 8-10
Overview of Materialized View Management Tasks............................................................ 8-11
Types of Materialized Views.......................................................................................................... 8-12
Materialized Views with Aggregates ...................................................................................... 8-12
Requirements for Using Materialized Views with Aggregates.................................... 8-15
Materialized Views Containing Only Joins ............................................................................ 8-15
Materialized Join Views FROM Clause Considerations................................................ 8-16
Nested Materialized Views....................................................................................................... 8-17
Why Use Nested Materialized Views?............................................................................. 8-17
Nesting Materialized Views with Joins and Aggregates............................................... 8-19
Nested Materialized View Usage Guidelines ................................................................. 8-19
Restrictions When Using Nested Materialized Views................................................... 8-20
Creating Materialized Views.......................................................................................................... 8-20
Creating Materialized Views with Column Alias Lists ........................................................ 8-21
Naming Materialized Views ..................................................................................................... 8-22
Storage And Table Compression.............................................................................................. 8-22
Build Methods............................................................................................................................. 8-23
Enabling Query Rewrite............................................................................................................ 8-24
Query Rewrite Restrictions ....................................................................................................... 8-24
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Materialized View Restrictions.......................................................................................... 8-24
General Query Rewrite Restrictions ................................................................................. 8-25
Refresh Options........................................................................................................................... 8-25
General Restrictions on Fast Refresh ................................................................................ 8-27
Restrictions on Fast Refresh on Materialized Views with Joins Only ......................... 8-27
Restrictions on Fast Refresh on Materialized Views with Aggregates........................ 8-27
Restrictions on Fast Refresh on Materialized Views with UNION ALL..................... 8-29
Achieving Refresh Goals .................................................................................................... 8-30
Refreshing Nested Materialized Views............................................................................ 8-30

Compressing Materialized Views for OLAP.......................................................................... 9-11
Materialized Views with Set Operators .................................................................................. 9-11
Examples of Materialized Views Using UNION ALL................................................... 9-11
Materialized Views and Models.................................................................................................... 9-13
Invalidating Materialized Views................................................................................................... 9-14
Security Issues with Materialized Views..................................................................................... 9-14
Querying Materialized Views with Virtual Private Database ............................................. 9-15
Using Query Rewrite with Virtual Private Database..................................................... 9-16
Restrictions with Materialized Views and Virtual Private Database .......................... 9-16
Altering Materialized Views .......................................................................................................... 9-17
10 Dimensions
What are Dimensions?..................................................................................................................... 10-2
Creating Dimensions ....................................................................................................................... 10-4
Dropping and Creating Attributes with Columns ................................................................ 10-8
Multiple Hierarchies .................................................................................................................. 10-9
Using Normalized Dimension Tables ................................................................................... 10-10
Viewing Dimensions...................................................................................................................... 10-11
Using Oracle Enterprise Manager.......................................................................................... 10-11
Using the DESCRIBE_DIMENSION Procedure................................................................... 10-11
Using Dimensions with Constraints........................................................................................... 10-12
Validating Dimensions.................................................................................................................. 10-12
Altering Dimensions...................................................................................................................... 10-14
Deleting Dimensions ..................................................................................................................... 10-14
Part IV Managing the Data Warehouse Environment
11 Overview of Extraction, Transformation, and Loading
Overview of ETL in Data Warehouses.......................................................................................... 11-2
ETL Tools for Data Warehouses ..................................................................................................... 11-3
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Daily Operations in Data Warehouses .................................................................................... 11-3
Evolution of the Data Warehouse ............................................................................................ 11-4

Overview of Loading and Transformation in Data Warehouses............................................. 14-2
Transformation Flow.................................................................................................................. 14-2
Multistage Data Transformation....................................................................................... 14-2
Pipelined Data Transformation......................................................................................... 14-3
Loading Mechanisms ....................................................................................................................... 14-4
Loading a Data Warehouse with SQL*Loader....................................................................... 14-5
Loading a Data Warehouse with External Tables.................................................................. 14-5
Loading a Data Warehouse with OCI and Direct-Path APIs............................................... 14-7
Loading a Data Warehouse with Export/Import.................................................................. 14-7
Transformation Mechanisms.......................................................................................................... 14-8
Transformation Using SQL ....................................................................................................... 14-8
CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT And INSERT /*+APPEND*/ AS SELECT.............. 14-8
Transformation Using UPDATE ....................................................................................... 14-9
Transformation Using MERGE ......................................................................................... 14-9
Transformation Using Multitable INSERT.................................................................... 14-10
Transformation Using PL/SQL.............................................................................................. 14-12
Transformation Using Table Functions................................................................................. 14-13
What is a Table Function? ................................................................................................ 14-13
Loading and Transformation Scenarios...................................................................................... 14-21
Key Lookup Scenario ............................................................................................................... 14-21
Exception Handling Scenario ................................................................................................. 14-22
Pivoting Scenarios .................................................................................................................... 14-23
15 Maintaining the Data Warehouse
Using Partitioning to Improve Data Warehouse Refresh ......................................................... 15-2
Refresh Scenarios........................................................................................................................ 15-5
Scenarios for Using Partitioning for Refreshing Data Warehouses .................................... 15-7
Refresh Scenario 1 ............................................................................................................... 15-7
Refresh Scenario 2 ............................................................................................................... 15-8
Optimizing DML Operations During Refresh ........................................................................... 15-8
Implementing an Efficient MERGE Operation ...................................................................... 15-8

Overview of Change Data Capture ............................................................................................... 16-2
Capturing Change Data Without Change Data Capture...................................................... 16-2
Capturing Change Data with Change Data Capture ............................................................ 16-4
Publish and Subscribe Model.................................................................................................... 16-5
Publisher ............................................................................................................................... 16-6
Subscribers............................................................................................................................ 16-7
Change Sources and Modes of Data Capture.............................................................................. 16-9
Synchronous .............................................................................................................................. 16-10
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Asynchronous ........................................................................................................................... 16-11
HotLog ................................................................................................................................ 16-12
AutoLog.............................................................................................................................. 16-13
Change Sets...................................................................................................................................... 16-14
Valid Combinations of Change Sources and Change Sets ................................................. 16-15
Change Tables.................................................................................................................................. 16-16
Getting Information About the Change Data Capture Environment .................................. 16-16
Preparing to Publish Change Data.............................................................................................. 16-18
Creating a User to Serve As a Publisher ............................................................................... 16-18
Granting Privileges and Roles to the Publisher ............................................................ 16-19
Creating a Default Tablespace for the Publisher .......................................................... 16-19
Password Files and Setting the REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE Parameter . 16-19
Determining the Mode in Which to Capture Data .............................................................. 16-20
Setting Initialization Parameters for Change Data Capture Publishing........................... 16-21
Initialization Parameters for Synchronous Publishing................................................ 16-21
Initialization Parameters for Asynchronous HotLog Publishing............................... 16-21
Initialization Parameters for Asynchronous AutoLog Publishing ............................ 16-22
Determining the Current Setting of an Initialization Parameter................................ 16-25
Retaining Initialization Parameter Values When a Database Is Restarted ............... 16-25
Adjusting Initialization Parameter Values When Oracle Streams Values Change . 16-25
Publishing Change Data ............................................................................................................... 16-27

Using the SQLAccess Advisor........................................................................................................ 17-7
SQLAccess Advisor Flowchart ................................................................................................. 17-8
SQLAccess Advisor Privileges.................................................................................................. 17-9
Creating Tasks........................................................................................................................... 17-10
SQLAccess Advisor Templates............................................................................................... 17-10
Creating Templates................................................................................................................... 17-11
Workload Objects...................................................................................................................... 17-12
Managing Workloads............................................................................................................... 17-12
Linking a Task and a Workload.............................................................................................. 17-13
Defining the Contents of a Workload.................................................................................... 17-14
SQL Tuning Set .................................................................................................................. 17-14
Loading a User-Defined Workload................................................................................. 17-15
Loading a SQL Cache Workload..................................................................................... 17-16
Using a Hypothetical Workload...................................................................................... 17-17
Using a Summary Advisor 9i Workload........................................................................ 17-18
SQLAccess Advisor Workload Parameters ................................................................... 17-19
SQL Workload Journal............................................................................................................. 17-20
Adding SQL Statements to a Workload ................................................................................ 17-20
Deleting SQL Statements from a Workload.......................................................................... 17-21
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Changing SQL Statements in a Workload ............................................................................ 17-22
Maintaining Workloads........................................................................................................... 17-22
Setting Workload Attributes............................................................................................ 17-23
Resetting Workloads......................................................................................................... 17-23
Removing a Link Between a Workload and a Task ..................................................... 17-23
Removing Workloads .............................................................................................................. 17-24
Recommendation Options....................................................................................................... 17-24
Generating Recommendations ............................................................................................... 17-25
EXECUTE_TASK Procedure............................................................................................ 17-26
Viewing the Recommendations.............................................................................................. 17-26

Cost-Based Rewrite..................................................................................................................... 18-3
When Does Oracle Rewrite a Query? ...................................................................................... 18-4
Enabling Query Rewrite.................................................................................................................. 18-5
Initialization Parameters for Query Rewrite .......................................................................... 18-5
Controlling Query Rewrite........................................................................................................ 18-6
Accuracy of Query Rewrite....................................................................................................... 18-7
Query Rewrite Hints ........................................................................................................... 18-8
Privileges for Enabling Query Rewrite.................................................................................... 18-9
Sample Schema and Materialized Views ................................................................................ 18-9
How Oracle Rewrites Queries...................................................................................................... 18-11
Text Match Rewrite Methods.................................................................................................. 18-11
Text Match Capabilities .................................................................................................... 18-13
General Query Rewrite Methods............................................................................................ 18-13
When are Constraints and Dimensions Needed?......................................................... 18-13
Join Back.............................................................................................................................. 18-14
Rollup Using a Dimension ............................................................................................... 18-16
Compute Aggregates ........................................................................................................ 18-17
Filtering the Data ............................................................................................................... 18-18
Dropping Selections in the Rewritten Query ................................................................ 18-24
Handling of HAVING Clause in Query Rewrite.......................................................... 18-25
Handling Expressions in Query Rewrite ....................................................................... 18-25
Handling IN-Lists in Query Rewrite .............................................................................. 18-26
Checks Made by Query Rewrite............................................................................................. 18-28
Join Compatibility Check ................................................................................................. 18-28
Data Sufficiency Check ..................................................................................................... 18-33
Grouping Compatibility Check....................................................................................... 18-34
Aggregate Computability Check..................................................................................... 18-34
Other Cases for Query Rewrite............................................................................................... 18-34
Query Rewrite Using Partially Stale Materialized Views ........................................... 18-35
xvii

Query Rewrite Considerations: Grouping Conditions ....................................................... 18-74
Query Rewrite Considerations: Expression Matching........................................................ 18-74
Query Rewrite Considerations: Date Folding...................................................................... 18-74
Query Rewrite Considerations: Statistics.............................................................................. 18-74
Advanced Rewrite Using Equivalences ..................................................................................... 18-75
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19 Schema Modeling Techniques
Schemas in Data Warehouses ......................................................................................................... 19-2
Third Normal Form .......................................................................................................................... 19-2
Optimizing Third Normal Form Queries................................................................................ 19-3
Star Schemas ...................................................................................................................................... 19-3
Snowflake Schemas .................................................................................................................... 19-5
Optimizing Star Queries ................................................................................................................. 19-5
Tuning Star Queries.................................................................................................................... 19-6
Using Star Transformation ........................................................................................................ 19-6
Star Transformation with a Bitmap Index ....................................................................... 19-6
Execution Plan for a Star Transformation with a Bitmap Index................................... 19-9
Star Transformation with a Bitmap Join Index ............................................................. 19-10
Execution Plan for a Star Transformation with a Bitmap Join Index......................... 19-10
How Oracle Chooses to Use Star Transformation........................................................ 19-11
Star Transformation Restrictions..................................................................................... 19-11
20 SQL for Aggregation in Data Warehouses
Overview of SQL for Aggregation in Data Warehouses ........................................................... 20-2
Analyzing Across Multiple Dimensions ................................................................................. 20-2
Optimized Performance............................................................................................................. 20-4
An Aggregate Scenario .............................................................................................................. 20-4
Interpreting NULLs in Examples ............................................................................................. 20-6
ROLLUP Extension to GROUP BY................................................................................................ 20-6
When to Use ROLLUP ............................................................................................................... 20-6
ROLLUP Syntax.......................................................................................................................... 20-6

Overview of SQL for Analysis and Reporting............................................................................ 21-2
Ranking Functions............................................................................................................................ 21-5
RANK and DENSE_RANK Functions .................................................................................... 21-5
Ranking Order ..................................................................................................................... 21-6
Ranking on Multiple Expressions..................................................................................... 21-7
RANK and DENSE_RANK Difference ............................................................................ 21-8
Per Group Ranking ............................................................................................................. 21-8
Per Cube and Rollup Group Ranking ............................................................................ 21-10
Treatment of NULLs......................................................................................................... 21-10
Bottom N Ranking.................................................................................................................... 21-12
CUME_DIST Function ............................................................................................................. 21-12
PERCENT_RANK Function.................................................................................................... 21-13
NTILE Function ........................................................................................................................ 21-13
ROW_NUMBER Function....................................................................................................... 21-15
Windowing Aggregate Functions................................................................................................ 21-15
xx
Treatment of NULLs as Input to Window Functions.......................................................... 21-16
Windowing Functions with Logical Offset........................................................................... 21-16
Centered Aggregate Function................................................................................................. 21-18
Windowing Aggregate Functions in the Presence of Duplicates ...................................... 21-19
Varying Window Size for Each Row ..................................................................................... 21-20
Windowing Aggregate Functions with Physical Offsets.................................................... 21-21
FIRST_VALUE and LAST_VALUE Functions ..................................................................... 21-21
Reporting Aggregate Functions ................................................................................................... 21-22
RATIO_TO_REPORT Function .............................................................................................. 21-24
LAG/LEAD Functions .................................................................................................................... 21-25
LAG/LEAD Syntax .................................................................................................................. 21-25
FIRST/LAST Functions.................................................................................................................. 21-26
FIRST/LAST Syntax................................................................................................................. 21-26
FIRST/LAST As Regular Aggregates.................................................................................... 21-26

Partition Join Syntax................................................................................................................. 21-45
Sample of Sparse Data ............................................................................................................. 21-46
Filling Gaps in Data.................................................................................................................. 21-47
Filling Gaps in Two Dimensions............................................................................................ 21-48
Filling Gaps in an Inventory Table ........................................................................................ 21-50
Computing Data Values to Fill Gaps..................................................................................... 21-52
Time Series Calculations on Densified Data............................................................................. 21-53
Period-to-Period Comparison for One Time Level: Example............................................ 21-55
Period-to-Period Comparison for Multiple Time Levels: Example .................................. 21-56
Creating a Custom Member in a Dimension: Example ...................................................... 21-62
22 SQL for Modeling
Overview of SQL Modeling ........................................................................................................... 22-2
How Data is Processed in a SQL Model.................................................................................. 22-4
Why Use SQL Modeling? .......................................................................................................... 22-6
SQL Modeling Capabilities ....................................................................................................... 22-7
Basic Topics in SQL Modeling..................................................................................................... 22-10
Base Schema .............................................................................................................................. 22-11
MODEL Clause Syntax ............................................................................................................ 22-11
Keywords in SQL Modeling ................................................................................................... 22-14
Assigning Values and Null Handling............................................................................ 22-14
Calculation Definition....................................................................................................... 22-15
Cell Referencing........................................................................................................................ 22-15
Symbolic Dimension References ..................................................................................... 22-16
Positional Dimension References.................................................................................... 22-16
Single Cell References on the Right Side........................................................................ 22-17
Multi-Cell References........................................................................................................ 22-17
xxii
Rules ........................................................................................................................................... 22-17
Single Cell References....................................................................................................... 22-18
Multi-Cell References on the Right Side ........................................................................ 22-18

Availability ........................................................................................................................... 23-3
xxiii
Manageability ...................................................................................................................... 23-3
Backup and Recovery ......................................................................................................... 23-3
Security ................................................................................................................................. 23-4
Oracle Data Mining Overview....................................................................................................... 23-4
Enabling Data Mining Applications ........................................................................................ 23-5
Data Mining in the Database .................................................................................................... 23-5
Data Preparation.................................................................................................................. 23-6
Model Building.................................................................................................................... 23-6
Model Evaluation ................................................................................................................ 23-7
Model Apply (Scoring) ....................................................................................................... 23-7
ODM Programmatic Interfaces ......................................................................................... 23-7
ODM Java API ..................................................................................................................... 23-7
ODM PL/SQL Packages..................................................................................................... 23-8
ODM Sequence Similarity Search (BLAST) ............................................................................ 23-8
24 Using Parallel Execution
Introduction to Parallel Execution Tuning................................................................................... 24-2
When to Implement Parallel Execution................................................................................... 24-2
When Not to Implement Parallel Execution........................................................................... 24-2
Operations That Can Be Parallelized....................................................................................... 24-3
How Parallel Execution Works....................................................................................................... 24-4
Degree of Parallelism ................................................................................................................. 24-5
The Parallel Execution Server Pool .......................................................................................... 24-6
Variations in the Number of Parallel Execution Servers............................................... 24-7
Processing Without Enough Parallel Execution Servers ............................................... 24-7
How Parallel Execution Servers Communicate ..................................................................... 24-7
Parallelizing SQL Statements.................................................................................................... 24-8
Dividing Work Among Parallel Execution Servers........................................................ 24-9
Parallelism Between Operations ..................................................................................... 24-10

Functions in Parallel Queries........................................................................................... 24-29
Functions in Parallel DML and DDL Statements.......................................................... 24-29
Other Types of Parallelism...................................................................................................... 24-29
Initializing and Tuning Parameters for Parallel Execution .................................................... 24-30
Using Default Parameter Settings .......................................................................................... 24-31
Setting the Degree of Parallelism for Parallel Execution .................................................... 24-32
How Oracle Determines the Degree of Parallelism for Operations .................................. 24-33
Hints and Degree of Parallelism...................................................................................... 24-33
Table and Index Definitions............................................................................................. 24-34
Default Degree of Parallelism.......................................................................................... 24-34
Adaptive Multiuser Algorithm ....................................................................................... 24-35
Minimum Number of Parallel Execution Servers......................................................... 24-35
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Limiting the Number of Available Instances ................................................................ 24-35
Balancing the Workload .......................................................................................................... 24-36
Parallelization Rules for SQL Statements.............................................................................. 24-37
Rules for Parallelizing Queries........................................................................................ 24-37
Rules for UPDATE, MERGE, and DELETE................................................................... 24-38
Rules for INSERT ... SELECT........................................................................................... 24-40
Rules for DDL Statements................................................................................................ 24-41
Rules for [CREATE | REBUILD] INDEX or [MOVE | SPLIT] PARTITION ........... 24-41
Rules for CREATE TABLE AS SELECT ......................................................................... 24-42
Summary of Parallelization Rules................................................................................... 24-43
Enabling Parallelism for Tables and Queries ....................................................................... 24-45
Degree of Parallelism and Adaptive Multiuser: How They Interact................................ 24-45
How the Adaptive Multiuser Algorithm Works .......................................................... 24-46
Forcing Parallel Execution for a Session ............................................................................... 24-46
Controlling Performance with the Degree of Parallelism .................................................. 24-47
Tuning General Parameters for Parallel Execution.................................................................. 24-47
Parameters Establishing Resource Limits for Parallel Operations.................................... 24-47