Food Culture in
Belgium
Belgium. Cartography by Bookcomp, Inc.
Food Culture in
Belgium
PETER SCHOLLIERS
Food Culture around the World
Ken Albala, Series Editor
GREENWOOD PRESS
Westport, Connecticut • London
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Scholliers, Peter.
Food culture in Belgium / Peter Scholliers.
p. cm. — (Food culture around the world, ISSN 1545–2638)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–0–313–34490–9 (alk. paper)
1. Cookery, Belgian. 2. Food habits—Belgium. I. Title.
TX723.5.B4S36 2009
394.1'209493—dc22 2008031523
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.
Copyright © 2009 by Peter Scholliers
All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be
reproduced, by any process or technique, without the
express written consent of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008031523
ISBN: 978–0–313–34490–9
ISSN: 1545–2638
First published in 2009
Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881
An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.

Eating Out 127
6.
Special Occasions 157
7.
Diet and Health 185
Glossary 207
Resource Guide 211
Selected Bibliography 217
Index 227
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Series Foreword
The appearance of the Food Culture around the World series marks a de-
finitive stage in the maturation of Food Studies as a discipline to reach a
wider audience of students, general readers, and foodies alike. In compre-
hensive interdisciplinary reference volumes, each on the food culture of a
country or region for which information is most in demand, a remarkable
team of experts from around the world offers a deeper understanding and
appreciation of the role of food in shaping human culture for a whole
new generation. I am honored to have been associated with this project
as series editor.
Each volume follows a series format, with a chronology of food-related
dates and narrative chapters titled Introduction, Historical Overview,
Major Foods and Ingredients, Cooking, Typical Meals, Eating Out, Spe-
cial Occasions, and Diet and Health (in special cases, these topics are
covered by region). Each also includes a glossary, bibliography, resource
guide, and illustrations.
Finding or growing food has of course been the major preoccupation of
our species throughout history, but how various peoples around the world
learn to exploit their natural resources, come to esteem or shun specific
foods and develop unique cuisines reveals much more about what it is

Sometime during the 1980s, I became engaged in the quantitative his-
toriography of food. I wished to learn about the money people spent on
food between 1850 and 1950, the calories they consumed in 1890 and
1910, and the prices they paid for pork, butter, or coffee between 1950
and 1975. This would help me to assess the development of the standard
of living of the masses (then, as now, a crucial research theme). Some-
time during the 1990s, I started to gain interest in cultural aspects of eat-
ing and drinking, realizing that food is much more than a matter of prices
and calories. I wanted to learn about the significance of foodstuffs and eat-
ing habits, which led me to study the role of cuisine in identity forma-
tion, the importance of eating chocolate, or the names of restaurants and
dishes. This is one way, not necessarily a better way of doing historical
research. I think it is more comprehensive and, therefore, more fulfilling.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Taking this route was possible through scientific, mostly cordial but
sometimes conflicting, contacts with many people during colloquia,
workshops, lectures, teaching, and dining occasions. Also, this book
was made possible through the reading of many works on the sociology
and ethnology of food, which are quite far from the average social and
economic historian’s purview. In the Selected Bibliography at the end
of this book I refer, and gladly pay tribute, to the work of these diverse
x Preface
scholars. However, this research endeavor was particularly made possible
and, moreover, enhanced through my frequent contacts with the mem-
bers of the Research Unit FOST (Social and Cultural Food Studies) of
the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (Brussels Free University), especially with
Patricia Van den Eeckhout (my usual sparring partner who, quite luckily,
is a great and adventurous cook) and Daniëlle De Vooght, Joeri Januar-
ius, Inge Mestdag, Nelleke Teughels, and Steven Van den Berghe (young
researchers with specific approaches, methods, and backgrounds—talks

literature, theater, poetry, newspapers, radio, and television fail to address
all people in the country. Moreover, the regions that make up Belgium do
not share a common history. For centuries Flanders developed differently
from Wallonia and the Brussels area in economic, social, and political
terms, with regions governed by different (often foreign) rulers and with
the division of once-united regions. Even nationalistic forces that came
into being after the proclamation of Belgium as an independent state in
xii Introduction
1830, such as the army, the school, or the Catholic Church, could not
forge solid Belgian feelings. Big disasters such as World Wars I and II,
rather than uniting the Belgians in their distress, divided them. On top of
all that, the national currency (the Belgian franc) disappeared in 2002.
Yet, there are aspects where the country does present unity. Belgium
has a king and a royal family, and all things royal fascinate many Bel-
gians. Royal deaths, marriages, and births are impressive moments of Bel-
gianness. Also, Belgians have expressed nationalism at major events such
as the 10 world exhibitions between 1884 and 1958 and the anniversa-
ries of the country in 1880, 1930, and 1980. Sports and international
film, architecture, or music contests are another field of national pride.
At these occasions, the black-yellow-red colors of the Belgian flag appear,
putting Belgium on the world map. International contacts are beneficial
to national sentiments. When abroad and confronted with other visitors,
Belgians tend to stress their Belgianness compared to the Dutch (who
cannot eat properly), the Americans (who are too loud), the British (who
cannot drink or behave properly), or the French (who are too chauvinis-
tic), implying that Belgians of course do enjoy food, are quiet, know how
to conduct themselves, and are unpretentious. Abroad, Belgium seems to
exist more than within the country.
According to some theories, food is also an explicit identity marker.
1

Romans, Goths, Franks, and others have settled in these areas) for long
or brief periods. Also, for ages, migrating people arrived from faraway
regions, bringing along their ways of cooking, ingredients, and culinary
habits. Moreover, spices, beverages, and other goods have been widely
imported, for these lands have long been important trade centers. Was
this small territory able to develop a culinary identity under these varied,
worldwide, and nonstop influences? Did these influences precisely shape
Belgium’s culinary uniqueness? Is Belgium therefore really “Europe’s best-
kept culinary secret,” and if it is, what are its secrets?
3
Chapter 1 answers
the first questions, but Belgium’s culinary secrets will emerge throughout
the whole book.
This book is written “from within,” meaning that I am a Belgian try-
ing to narrate what seems obvious to me, which implies the providing of
inside information. I would say that one may eat delightfully well as well
as appallingly in Belgium. My advantage is the use of archival material
and Dutch and French literature that may be unattainable for many other
authors. My historical training and a serious attempt to take an ethno-
logical view should ensure a relativist approach, which made me look at
things with a naïve eye. Thus, I ask questions about meal routines, ways
of cooking, the practice of eating out, mealtimes, shopping habits, the use
of ingredients, food at weddings, school and company cafeterias, cooking
clubs, male and female chefs, Sunday dinners, family spending on food
items, culinary differences between Flemings and Walloons, and many
other issues related to ordinary and special food. I compare information
with that from other countries. As a historian I try to interpret today’s
foodways by looking at the past. There are many very old traces (beer
production, for example) but also many newer ones (such as potatoes or
restaurants) and wholly recent ones (like new exotic foodstuffs). The bulk

C
. First domesticated animals and farming are introduced.
2000
B
.
C
. Trade with the British Isles and Southern Europe
begins.
250
B
.
C
. Celts invade this part of Europe.
58–56
B
.
C
. Julius Caesar conquers Gaul, which gradually becomes
Romanized.
256
A
.
D
. Franks invade northwest Europe.
406 Germans invade what now is Belgium.
455 Roman rule ends.
500 Clovis, king of Franks, is baptized, which starts
Christianization and the institution of meatless days
(Wednesdays and especially Fridays) and Lent.
c. 510 Anthimus writes De observatione ciborum.

1366 Brewery Den Horen (Leuven) established, allegedly
the predecessor of brewery Artois and Inbev.
1419–1482 Under Burgundian rule Brabant, Flanders, Hainault,
Holland, Sealand, Artois, and Limburg are united.
1490 Antwerp becomes the commercial center of Europe.
1492 Christopher Columbus sets off to explore a new seaway
to India, opening commercial roads for new products
from the “Americas.”
1510 Een notabel boecxken van cokeryen (A little notable book
of cooking), the first printed cookbook, is published in
Brussels.
Timeline xvii
1519 Charles V unites the Netherlands with Spain.
1523 Execution of Lutherans in Brussels, after outbreak of
Protestant reformation.
1566 Iconoclastic fury: Catholic churches are destroyed.
1568–1648 Dutch Freedom Fight leads to the separation between
the Spanish Netherlands (Flanders, Brabant, Hainault,
etc.) and the Calvinist Republic (Holland, Utrecht,
etc.).
1585 Antwerp is taken by the Spaniards, with temporary de-
cline of trade and industry.
1612 Antonius Magirus publishes Koocboec oft familieren
keukenboec (Cookbook or the everyday recipe book) in
Leuven.
1648 The Treaty of Münster recognizes the Dutch Republic.
1695 The French bombard Brussels.
1713 Treaty of Utrecht: the Spanish Netherlands become
part of the Austrian Empire. Until 1795 these lands are
called the Austrian Netherlands.

First bread is baked by the Social Democrat cooperative
Vooruit in Ghent.
1885 Belgian Workers’ Party is founded.
The first Belgian World’s fair is organized in Antwerp.
1890 The Abattoir (central slaughterhouse) in Brussels is built.
1894 Antwerp organizes its second World’s fair.
1895 Jean de Gouy publishes La cuisine et la pâtisserie bour-
geoises en Belgique et à l’étranger (The bourgeois cuisine
and pastry making in Belgium and abroad) in Brussels.
1897 Brussels organizes its first World’s fair.
1904 Guide Michelin includes Belgian restaurants.
1908 Belgium acquires the Congo Free State as a colony.
First cooking school is established by the Union Syndi-
cale des Hôteliers, Restaurateurs et Cafétiers de Brux-
elles (Association of owners of hotels, restaurants and
cafés in Brussels).
1910 Brussels organizes its second World’s fair.
1913 Ghent and Liège organize their first World’s fair.
1914–1918 World War I. Belgium is occupied by the Germans:
period of hunger, skyrocketing prices, death, rising
inequality.
1919 Eight-hour workday is instituted. Vandervelde Bill se-
verely limits the selling of gin in public places.
Timeline xix
1927 The Women’s Farmers Association publishes the first
edition of Ons kookboek (Our cookbook), Leuven.
1930 Antwerp organizes its third and Liège its second World’s
fair. The economic depression starts.
1935 Brussels organizes its third World’s fair.
1936 Paid holidays are introduced for industry workers.

1992 The Nutritional Information Centre (NICE) is launched.
1999 The dioxin crisis breaks out, followed by a genuine food
scare and political upheaval.
2001 The home espresso machine is launched.
2002 Belgium adopts the euro.
Public barbecue with thousands of participants introduces
large public works in Antwerp.
2003 The annual carnival (Mardi Gras) of the little town of
Binche is named a UNESCO world heritage site.
Belgium wins World Barbecue Championship.
2004 The government’s price control for bread is abolished.
2005 The National Food and Health Plan (following the 2004
national food survey) is presented.
The average family expenditure on food reaches 12.1 per-
cent of total spending.
Westvleteren Abt 12 is chosen as the best beer of the
world.
2007 Food prices increase more than the average price
inflation.
Geraardbergse mattentaart, Vlaams-Brabantse tafeldruiven
and Beurre d’Ardenne (respectively, cheese cake from
Geraardsbergen, table grapes from Flemish Brabant, and
butter from the Ardennes) are put on the EU list of Pro-
tected Designation of Origin.
2008 The Week of Taste is organized for the third time, in-
volving dozens of activities related to good food. The TV
program Mijn restaurant (My restaurant) reaches tens of
thousands of viewers, leading to a new gastronomic hype
in Flanders.
1

with 40 miles of coast and sandy beaches. Right behind the beaches come
the polders, an area that was once frequently flooded but that has long
been dry and fertile because of sluices. The Flemish lowlands run from the
polders up to the north toward the Kempen, with some hills but mostly
flat; fertile soil alternates with poor soil. Central Belgium (between 350
and 700 feet above sea level) was once part of an extensive forest running
from northern France to beyond the Ruhr region in Germany. It has very
fruitful clay plateaus and many gentle hills. Upper Belgium (700 feet or
more above sea level; the highest point of the country reaches 2,300 feet)
is full of woods, with large, fertile valleys and plateaus. Large and small
rivers and canals, motorways, and railroads run through the country, con-
necting it directly with ports and cities abroad.
Today, Belgium has quite a complex institutional shape. Five state
reforms between 1970 and 2001 reorganized the country into three com-
munities based on language (Flemish, French, and German) and three
regions (the Flemish region, the Brussels Capital Region, and the Wal-
loon region). Each has their own parliament and government. These
reforms did not abolish the federal parliament and government with its
prime minister, so now this little country of about 10 million people has
seven parliaments and six governments.
Belgium is one of the most densely populated countries of Europe (340
inhabitants per square kilometer), and it is the fifteenth richest country
in the world (gross domestic product per person in 2008 is estimated at
$42,000); Antwerp is the third most important harbor of Europe (rank-
ing 12th worldwide), and Brussels hosts the headquarters of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the European Union (EU), and
many international corporations. Some authors explain Belgium’s inter-
national role by referring to the country’s central geographical location,
but actually Belgium’s intermediate cultural, economic, social, and politi-
cal position amid the big European players is crucial. This intermediary

much more important. Small parcels of land were plowed, and primitive
forms of wheat (emmer, einkorn) and barley were harvested. These parcels
were abandoned when yields diminished over time, leading to frequent
moves in search of new land. These farmers owned cattle, sheep, goats,
and pigs. Goats were primarily used for milk (which was drunk as such and
used for making white cheese), while sheep were kept for wool; the meat of
cattle and pigs was eaten. The growing consumption of vegetable products
led to a fall in fish consumption, like in the Meuse basin. Farmers’ houses
were large and often consisted of three parts: one for people, a second for
keeping animals, and a third for storing food and tools. Most people com-
bined foraging, fishing, and agriculture with some hunting and, gradually,
trading. Miners from Spiennes, for example, seem not to have produced
their own food and most likely traded goods for food instead.
By 1800 b.c. several small settlements could be found near the coast,
in the plains of present-day Flanders and in the region between the Sam-
bre and Meuse rivers. By then, farmers had learned about crops and had
selected those cereals with the best yields. Domesticated horses were used
for transport, riding, and food. New agricultural tools appeared, such as
the one-piece wooden shovel, the sickle, and the simple plow; manure was
mixed with the soil to increase harvests. Bronze objects (tools, weapons,
and jewels) became fashionable around 2000 b.c. and were imported from
faraway regions (some coming from Egypt via numerous steps). So-called
4 Food Culture in Belgium
lords’ graves indicate the existence of strict hierarchical communities
with rich and poor people; most likely, warriors and their offspring, living
in fortified settlements, ruled in particular areas and levied taxes. These
families consumed meat regularly, whereas the common people had to
make do with legumes, milk, and cereals that were ground, mixed with
water, and heated to make porridge or baked into bread (leavened with
the foam of beer).

tinuing German invasions and Gallic disputes. It took six years, many
wars, and tens of thousands of dead to defeat the Belgae. Once this was
done, a new food revolution was apparent.
GALLO-ROMANS
After protests, revolts, and severe oppression, the Belgae lands were in-
corporated as Gallia Belgica into the Roman Empire and remained so for