GLOSSARY PAGE 400
ing-form the form of a verb with ing added, e.g. making, flying, used as gerund or
active participle.
intonation the rise and fall of the voice • 54
intransitive verb a verb that cannot take an object, although it may have a
prepositional phrase after it, e.g. Something happened. You must listen to me.
• 8
invert/inversion Inversion means changing the order. In the question Has the
play started? there is inversion of subject and auxiliary verb (The play has
started.).
irregular See regular.
linking adverb e.g. also, however, finally • 216
linking verb a verb like be, seem, become, look, feel that can take a complement
• 9
literary A literary style is a formal style typical of literature, of writing.
main clause A sentence has one or more main clauses, e.g. It rained or It rained
and I got wet. A main clause can have a sub clause, e.g. I woke up when the alarm
went off. Here I woke up is the main clause, and when the alarm went off is a sub
clause. A main clause can stand on its own, but a sub clause is part of the main
clause. •239(2)
main verb the finite verb in a main clause, e.g. I like classical music. Hearing a
knock, he jumped up. Your friend will expect us to be ready.
manner An adverbial of manner tells us how something happens, e.g. sadly, in a
hurry. • 209
mid position in the middle of the sentence, after an auxiliary verb but before an
ordinary verb, e.g. I was just writing a note. For details • 208(4).
modal (auxiliary) verb The modal verbs are will, would, shall, should, can, could,
may, might, must, need, ought to, dare.
modifier/modify In the phrase a narrow street, the adjective narrow is a modifier.
It modifies the noun street. It changes our idea of the street by giving more
information about it. Other kinds of words can modify: I've got a tennis ball. We

past continuous a form with the past of be and an active participle: It was raining
at the time. • 66
past participle the form of a verb used after have in the perfect, e.g. They have
arrived. How long has he known?
past perfect a form with had and a past participle, e.g. / had answered the letter
the week before. • 68
past perfect continuous a form with had been and an active participle: I saw that
it had been raining. • 68
past simple the past tense without an auxiliary, e.g. it stopped, they left • 65
perfect a verb form with have and a past participle, e.g. The film has started.
• 61(3)
perfect gerund e.g. He denied having taken the money.
perfect infinitive e.g. to have done, to have waited
perfect participle e.g. Having paid the bill, we left.
performative verb When we say I agree to express agreement, we are using a
performative verb, one which expresses the action it performs. Others are
promise, apologize, suggest, refuse. • 16(3)
person First person relates to the speaker (7, we). Second person relates to the
person spoken to (you). Third person relates to other people and things (he, she,
it, they).
personal pronoun e.g. /, you, he, we • 184
phrasal verb a verb + adverb combination, e.g. get up, look out, turn off
phrase a word or group of words that is part of a clause, e.g. your friend (a noun
phrase), was asking (a verb phrase) • 4
plural A plural form means more than one. Tree is singular; trees is plural.
positive I'm ready is positive; I'm not ready is negative.
possessive a form expressing the idea of something belonging to someone, or a
similar relationship, e.g. my chair, theirs, whose sister, Diana's job
possessive determiner my, your, his, our etc • 174
possessive pronoun mine, yours, his, ours etc • 174

e.g. David blamed himself for the accident. • 186
regular A regular form is the same as most others; it follows the normal pattern.
The verb call has a regular past tense called. But the verb sing has an irregular
past tense sang.
relative adverb where, when and why in a relative clause, e.g. the hotel where we
stayed • 279
relative clause a clause that modifies a noun, e.g. the woman who called
yesterday, the car you were driving, people going home from work • 271
relative pronoun a word like who, which, that in a relative clause, e.g. the person
who started the argument
s-form the form of a verb with s or es added, e.g. The weather looks good.
sentence A sentence can be a statement, question, imperative or exclamation;
• 15. It consists of one or more clauses. A written sentence begins with a capital
letter and ends with a full stop (.) or question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!).
sequence of tenses the use of the same tense in the main clause and sub clause,
e.g. I'm going to Greece because I like it there. (both present), I realized I had
given the wrong answer. (both past)
short answer a subject + auxiliary used to answer a question, e.g. Who's winning?
~ You are. • 29(4) See also yes/no short answer.
short form Some words can be written in a full form or a short form, e.g. have or
've. In the short form we use an apostrophe in place of part of the word. • 55(2)
simple tenses the present simple or past simple tense without an auxiliary, e.g. it
opens, it opened
singular A singular form refers to one thing only. Car is singular; cars is plural.
state verb a verb that refers to something staying the same, not an action, e.g. be,
belong, remain, know • 62
statement a sentence which gives information, not a question or request • 16
stress speaking a word or syllable with more force and so making it sound more
important
strong form See weak form.

coming, had waited, can swim, must have seen • 57
viewpoint adverbial e.g. economically, weather-wise • 213(3)
vowel The letters a, e, i, o and u are vowels. The other letters, e.g. b, c, d,f, are
consonants.
weak form Some words can be spoken in a strong form or a weak form. For
example, the word can has a strong form
and a weak form .•55(1)
wh-question a question that begins with a question word, e.g. who, what, where
• 24
word class a type of word such as a noun, adjective or preposition • 3
yes/no question a question that can be answered yes or no, e.g. Are you ready?~
Yes, I am. Did anyone call? ~ No. • 24
yes/no short answer an answer such as Yes, it is. or No, they didn't. • 29(2)
PAGE 403
GLOSSARY
voiced/voiceless These consonant sounds are voiceless:
. These consonant sounds are voiced:
. All vowel sounds are voiced.
Index
PAGE 404
The numbers refer to sections, not
pages. For example, 158 means section
158, and 221(3c) means part 3c of
section 221. Numbers in bold type
mean a direct treatment of or main
reference to a topic.
a/an
summary 158
as + adjective + a 221 (3c)
alone hundred 191(1) Note b

leaving out words 36
patterns with participles 134
participle relative clauses 276
with so/not 43
special styles 45
abbreviations
with a/an 159(2)
capital letters 56(6h)
plural 145(1d)
ability 98
ability
ability at/in 237(2j)
+ to-infinitive 124(1a)
able ending 285(5i)
able
comparison 218(4b)
able to 98(2,3)
about 228(1)
after adjective 236(2)
= approximately 191(4)
and around 225(1) Note d
+ gerund 132(2, 3)
after noun 237(2i)
after say/tell 266(1) Note c
after verb 233(3), 234(5)
about to 78(1a),80(3)
above 225(1), 225(3b), 226(2a)
absent from 236(4)
absolutely 212(1a) Note a, 212(7a)
absolutely no 17(6b)

active with passive meaning 113
active participle 134, 135(2)
before noun 137, 283(2) Note
after passive verb 110(2)
in relative clause 276(1)
spelling 64(1) Note a
add
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265(2)
adding relative clause 274
and identifying clause 272 (4a, 5)
additions (e.g. So do I) 43
adjectival clause: see relative clause