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Metaphor is a rhetorical trope or a figure of speech, where a comparison is made between two seemingly unrelated objects without using “like” or “as”. It is transference on one object’s characteristics onto another.
Metaphor also appears frequently in American newspapers. They use the phrase “star to steer by” (The Washington Post) when complaining about a lack of strategic vision from government; or “full-speed ahead” (USA Today) when 92 local banks committed wholeheartedly to a project.
The following example is also considered a typical kind of metaphor:
“Đáng buồn thay, trong cuộc sống cũng hay gặp những căn bệnh nhờn thuốc như thế. Nói ngay như trong thế giới học đường, trí thức vốn thanh bạch xưa nay, vậy mà bệnh nhờn thuốc có tha đâu. Nguy hiểm hơn, những con người ấy sớm được “làm quen” với tiêu cực, khi ra đời hẳn dễ “tiếp thu” và ứng xử hòa vào “dòng đục” mà không ngỡ ngàng.” (Vietnamnet)
(It’s so sad as “medicine’s ineffectiveness” can also be found in our society. Even the intellectual world which used to be pure and upright is still interfered. More dangerously, those who early get familiar with bad habits and tricks will be easily adaptive with the “dirty trend” without any abashment)
 


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effect on the reception of information. Moreover, it wastes time for both the writers and readers because in this era of information explosion, it is better to get as much information as possible in the shortest time.
Chapter 3: CRITICISM IN AMERICAN AND VIETNAMESE NEWSPAPERS
Major factors affecting direct/indirect criticism
Communication styles
It has been proved that American society values simple, direct verbal and written communication while the Vietnamese consider directness as lack of subtlety and sophistication.
Gary M. Wederspahn, a leader in the field of intercultural relations and communications, has characterized the American style of communication as strongly oriented towards content (facts, numbers, dates, and precise, explicit meanings). Their speech reflects the high value they place on words and the need for clarity. Wederspahn (2000) states: “Americans focus may be compared to a spotlight intensively illuminating a narrow band of the communication spectrum. In contrast, the communication style in Asia is more like a floodlight that takes in the context in which the communications occur.” This means the situation and the relationship of the people involved plus the time and place all carry a large part of the meaning in the conversation of the Vietnamese. The actual words tend to be less important and need to be understood in terms of the contextual factors.
Individualism vs. Collectivism
One of the most distinctive characteristics of the American is their devotion to individualism. They have been trained since very early in their lives to consider themselves as separate individuals who are responsible for their own situations in life and their own destinies. They are not socially obliged to see themselves as members of a close-knit, toughly interdependent family, religious group, tribe, and nation. They have strong belief that all people are of equal value according to some philosophical or spiritual standard. Their tendencies to use their boss’s first name, to challenge authority easily, and to expect equal treatment reveal a low power distance value.
However, such cultures with high power distance as Vietnam frequently take American individualism and egalitarianism as an unwillingness to show proper deference and respect to those who deserve it. The Vietnamese always consider themselves as a member of community. They think that people not only live with nature but also live with each other to establish a society. They are sunk in the relationship with family, morals, laws, politics, etc. While the American appreciate role of individuals, the Vietnamese value role of community. The Vietnamese are observed treating people around as kin, as those who come from the same source, the same origin. This, for thousand years, has been an immutable principle - individuals are dissolved in community, they are nothing when isolated.
This explains why the Vietnamese pay much attention to the “how” of their communication so that they do not leave any mistake which damages the relationship between them and others. Indirectness, especially in criticism, is an effective way to avoid making others feel unpleasant.
Generally, collectivism vs. individualism leads to two ways of communication. While the Americans find it comfortable to express their ideas, feelings freely, the Vietnamese have to take notice of others’ reaction before speaking and writing.
Attitudes towards criticism
According to Wederspahn (2000), the American consider criticism itself a neutral thing when one starts to use it in order to create a certain experience and feeling. And no one needs defense against something that is neutral. Additionally, they tend to think of themselves before taking notice of others’ reactions because of their individualism. For this reason, the American are not resistant to express their critical opinions.
For the Vietnamese, regardless of how 'true' the criticism is, it seems, for a moment, there is something wrong with those who are criticized, and seen from the perspective of one’s personality this is never a pleasant experience. What is not pleasant should be avoided, diverted, hidden or otherwise be experienced as little as possible. Hence, many of the activities aim at prevention from being criticized.
Criticism in American newspapers
As discussed in Chapter 2, the American are generally open and straightforward in communication. They often speak or write directly about things they dislike. They are not taught that they should mask their emotional responses. They do not think it improper to display their feelings.
Hence, in American media in general and in American e-newspapers in particular, voice of criticism is usually strong, straight and direct. Some critical articles even sound aggressive, severe and sharp.
Most articles of criticism in the US e-newspapers have a very clear style. They give the main points and state the criticism at the top in the headline and the lead paragraph(s). The body of the articles then adds details, statements, and comments from people involved in the articles, plus any background the writer feels necessary to support the criticism more strongly. This means one gets at least three chances to understand the main points of the article. It is said “at least” because many articles have accompanying picture and captions (text explaining the pictures) as well which produce much stronger impact on readers.
The content of the next part is collected and classified through an investigation into three most popular American online newspapers: USA Today ( The New York Times ( and The Washington Post (
Criticism in Vietnamese newspapers
As regards culture, “Indirectness” is believed to be common in Vietnamese communication. It is hard for somebody to find a conversation without indirectness or hedges. For instance:
“Tớ biết là cậu rất bận, nhưng khi cậu đi ra ngoài, cậu có thể tiện thể gửi lá thư này cho mình được không?”
(I know you are busy, but when you go out, will you send this letter for me by the way?)
The phrases as “tui đoán là...” (I guess), “tui không biết nói ra điều này có phải không, nhưng...” (I’m not sure if this is right, but...), “Những gì tui sắp nói có thể sẽ xúc phạm cậu...” (What I am going to say may offend you...) are examples of hedges and indirectness.
Newspapers reflect the daily life, and are influenced by it. In the essay “Cultural elements in newspapers” published in “Sai Gon Giai phong” newspaper (The Saigon Liberation) on February 20, 1999, it is indicated that each article contains many cultural factors such as ways of thinking, observing, evaluating and writing, which is different from culture to culture. Therefore, indirectness in Vietnamese newspapers is a matter of course, and the frequency of indirectness is much higher in case of criticizing.
It is well-known that the first and foremost function of newspapers is providing information. However, if in newspapers, writers only use stereotypes of words and ways of expressing to report events, or to give out problems, the articles will be so much dull.
In addition, critical articles mention sensitive aspects that may cause unforeseeable reactions from readers. In daily communication, the Vietnamese tend to avoid straight talks, so do they in written communication. Therefore, we do not often see direct criticism in Vietnamese newspapers.
In the most popular websites of e-newspapers such as VnExpress ( Vietnamnet ( Dân Trí Online ( etc., critical articles occupy an important position. However, criticism, in comparison with American newspapers, is still general, light, indirect and not strict, but it is acceptable to Vietnamese readers.
Chapter 4: RESEARCH AND DATA ANALYSIS
Methodology
Research questions
This research aims at answering the following questions:
- What are the ways that American and Vietnamese online newspapers use to express criticism?
- How different are the degrees of directness and indirectness of criticizing between American and Vietnamese online newspapers?
Sources of linguistic input
- 3 of most popular American online newspapers: USA Today ( The New York Times ( and The Washington Post (
- 3 of most popular Vietnamese online newspapers: VnExpress ( Vietnamnet ( Dân Trí Online (
Data collection procedure
- Investigation of “Nation” column in American e-newspapers and “Xã hội” column in Vietnamese e-newspapers from November 26th to December 2nd 2008 to find out the number of critical articles and compare the percentages of direct/indirect criticism between American and Vietnamese online newspapers through the layout and illustrations of articles as well as the language used.
Data analysis and findings
Structure of the artic...

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