SUSTAINABLE GROWTH
AND APPLICATIONS IN
RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCES

Edited by Majid Nayeripour and
Mostafa Kheshti
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Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources
Edited by Majid Nayeripour and Mostafa Kheshti Published by InTech
Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia

Copyright © 2011 InTech
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Contents
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Preface IX
Part 1 Sustainable Growth 1
Chapter 1 EU Energy Policies and Sustainable Growth 3
Carlo Andrea Bollino and Silvia Micheli
Chapter 2 Sustained Renewability:
Approached by Systems Theory and Human Ecology 21
Tobias A. Knoch
Chapter 3 Renewable Energy Use and Energy Efficiency –
A Critical Tool for Sustainable Development 49
Pius Fatona
Chapter 4 Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey 61
Ali Osman Yılmaz
Chapter 5 Experiences of Community Wind
Electrification Projects in Bolivia:
Evaluation and Improvements for Future Projects 85
Laia Ferrer-Martí, Bruno Domenech,
Walter Canedo, Carlos Reza, Mirtha Tellez,
Milton Dominguez, Lorenzo Perone and Jaime Salinas

Crop for Semi-Arid Lands of Eastern Europe 269
Sándor Csete, Szilvia Stranczinger, Bálint Szalontai, Ágnes Farkas,
Róbert W. Pál, Éva Salamon-Albert, Marianna Kocsis, Péter Tóvári,
Tibor Vojtela, József Dezső, Ilona Walcz, Zsolt Janowszky,
János Janowszky and Attila Borhidi
Chapter 14 Analysis of Time Dependent Valuation of
Emission Factors from the Electricity Sector 295
C. Gordon and Alan Fung
Chapter 15 Photovoltaic Conversion: Outlook at the Crossroads Between
Technological Challenges and Eco-Strategic Issues 313
Bouchra Bakhiyi and Joseph Zayed
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Preface
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Worldwide attention to environmental issues combined with the energy crisis force us
to reduce greenhouse emissions and increase the usage of renewable energy sources as
a solution to providing an efficient environment. This book addresses the current
issues of sustainable growth and applications in renewable energy sources. The fifteen
chapters of the book have been divided into two sections to organize the information
accessible to readers.
The book provides a variety of material, for instance on policies aiming at the

level (IEA, 2010). Such an increase is mainly caused by fossil fuel combustion for energy
purposes in the power, industry, building and transport sectors (Stern, 2007). In the
Reference Scenario, which gives economic and environmental assessments of a world in
which the economy continues on its current course without polluting emission reductions
policies, fossil fuel use is projected to grow, and the dirtiest fuel, i.e. coal, is expanding its
share to face rising energy demand driven by emerging countries such as China and
India.
The global response to climate change started with the so called Rio Earth Summit in 1992:
governments realized the need to work together for an environmental and sustainable
economic development. The Summit was a first move towards an environmental policy at
global level, by setting the emission reduction targets for developed countries and
establishing a framework of wider reduction for the future from a sustainable development
point of view. Its weak point was that the Summit promised a lot at little cost, since it was
an agreement without stringent measures (Helm, 2008). The Summit has been followed by
several discussions with the purpose of finding optimal shared environmental policy for
facing climate change.
Afterwards, the Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement adopted in Kyoto on
December 1997, has committed (instead of encouraging) 37 industrialized countries and
the European Union (EU) to reduce GHG emissions through national measures. The EU
has undoubtedly made a big effort in developing a progressive environmental policy, but
many of its own policies are still far from making a difference to climate change.
Following the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol in 2002, the EU committed itself to reduce
emissions to 8% below 1990 levels by 2008-2012, allowing different national emissions
target within the EU accounting for different income level, country size and
environmental attitude (Borghesi, 2010).
The current policy action toward green Europe is the so-called 20-20-20 Climate and Energy
Package. The EU aims to limit its 2020 greenhouse gas emissions to 20% below 1990 levels
and to meet a 20% renewables target of total energy supply by 2020. The Package includes a
20% energy efficiency target and a biofuel target of 10% by 2020 (Hepburn et al., 2006). To
meet these targets, governments in EU countries use a large variety of support instruments.

complementary and coordinated actions to green themselves by implementing their own
national plan (Böhringer et al., 2009). Every country would want to spur new activities, new
investment, more employment in its own territory, by using an appropriate mix of local
taxation and subsidies, in conjunction with other command and control instruments.
However, EU countries have the incentive to free-ride, or to impose as few costs as possible
on their home economy while enjoying the benefits created at the other countries’ cost
(Barrett, 1994). So, the research highlight the formidable problems of opportunistic behavior
and inefficient outcomes.
2. Energy trends
According to projections of the Reference Scenario (which gives economic and
environmental assessments of a world in which the economy continues on its current course
without polluting emission reductions policies), energy demand should increase by 1.5%
per year between 2007 and 2030 and fossil fuels remain the main sources of energy. They
represent three quarters of global energy consumption during the same projection period
and the dirtiest fuel, i.e. coal, is expanding its share to face the raising in energy
consumption mainly driven by developing countries, such as China and India. Actually,
non-OECD countries are the main drivers in the increase of energy demand as a result of
their economic and population growth.

EU Energy Policies and Sustainable Growth

5

Fig. 1. Gross Inland Consumption in 2007. Source: Eurostat (2009).
Renewable energies, including hydroelectric, geothermal, biomass, solar energy and wind
energy, grow at a fast pace relative to electricity production, but their share in energy
consumption is still low.

Country Solids Oil Gas Nuclear Hydro Biomass Other
United States 23.7 38.9 23.0 9.3 0.9 3.5 0.7

equivalent in 2008, that is almost twice the pre-Industrial Revolution
level (IEA, 2009). Mostly of the world emissions originates from China and United States,
which together produce about 12.1 Gt CO2 that is 41% of world CO2 emissions. The
relation between GHG emissions and economic growth may be well understood through
the Kaya identity, which expresses CO
2
emissions of the energy sector in terms of GDP,
energy intensity of output, and carbon intensity of energy consumption (Stern, 2007):

 Carbon Dioxide Emissions population per capita GDP energy intensity carbon intensity

From this identity it is clear that the increase in world GDP tends to increase global
emissions, unless increase in income stimulates a reduction in carbon intensity or total
energy (Nakicenovic et al., 2006).

Country
CO2 emissions
(Gt CO2)
GDP per
capita
Carbon
intensity
Energy
intensity
Population
USA 1.4 1.8 0.0 -1.5 1.2
EU 0.2 1.8 -0.7 -1.2 0.3
UK - 0.4 2.4 -1.0 -2.3 0.2
Japan 0.7 0.7 -0.5 0.2 0.3
China 3.7 8.5 1.1 -6.4 0.9


7
agreement with manufacturers. Electricity and heat generation constitute the largest
polluting sectors in 2008, by making a 41% contribution to the world CO
2
emissions in 2008,
relying on carbon fuel, especially in developing countries such as China and India. Fig. 2. Top 10 emitting countries in 2008 (Gt CO
2
). Source: IEA, 2010. Fig. 3. World CO
2
emissions by sector in 2008. Source: IEA, 2010.
We deem imperative that a global response to face climate change is needed at the
European level. The EU energy portfolio relies strongly on fossil fuels, and it has
important consequences both in terms of “importing” CO
2
emissions and for energy
security reasons.

Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources

8

Origin 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Share 2007(%)
Russia 112.4 136.8 154.7 170.8 188.9 188.0 189.6 185.3 33.9

Russia 14976 20875 23033 26545 40382 48304 55544 56117 26.2
South Africa 40177 49273 53961 56932 54190 51698 53080 46121 21.5
Australia 28600 29450 29337 31004 30838 27013 27147 29069 13.6
Colombia 23132 22633 21398 22908 24224 24147 26068 29018 13.5
United States 20447 20119 14082 12619 15416 15673 17370 20833 9.7
Indonesia 9097 10254 11540 13004 13980 14704 21092 17594 8.2
Other 15146 20437 18278 17348 17032 15504 13508 15606 7.3Table 5. Coal imports in the EU27 (in kT) in 2007. Sources: Eurostat (2009)
3. Policy
The global response to climate change started with the so called Rio Earth Summit in 1992:
governments realized the need to work together for an environmental and sustainable
economic development. The Summit was a first move towards an environmental policy at
global level, by setting emission reduction targets for developed countries and establishing a
framework of wider reduction for the future from a sustainable development point of view. Its
weak point was that the Summit promised a lot at little costs, since it was an agreement without
stringent measures (Helm, 2008). The Summit has been followed by several discussions with the
purpose of finding optimal shared environmental policy for facing climate change.

EU Energy Policies and Sustainable Growth

9
Afterwards, the Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement adopted in Kyoto on December
1997, has committed (instead of encouraging) 37 industrialized countries and the European
Union (EU) to reduce a basket of six greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol entered into
force in February by committing contracting parties as a group to achieve an overall
reduction in polluting emissions of 5% in the period 2008-12 with respect to 1990 levels(IEA,
2010). The Protocol has helped sensitive public awareness of problems related to climate
change. Despite the Protocol has detailed commitment for each country member in terms of

making Europe a model of sustainable development for the 21st Century. The EU aims to
achieve by 2020:
 a commitment to reduce by at least 20% greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990
levels by 2020, and the goal of reducing emissions by 30% by 2020 if other developed
countries make comparable efforts;
 a binding target for the EU of 20% of energy from renewable sources by 2020, including
a target for biofuels.

Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources

10
1990 2008
% change
90-08
Kyoto
Target
Kyoto Parties with targets 8 858.3 7 980.1 -9.2% -4.7%
North America
432.3 550.9 27.4%
Canada 432.3 550.9 27.4% -6%
Europe
3 153.6 3 222.9 2.2%
Austria 56.5 69.3 22.7% -13%
Belgium 107.9 111.0 2.8% -7.5%
Denmark 50.4 48.4 -4.0% -21%
Finland 54.4 56.6 4.0% 0%
France 352.3 368.2 4.5% 0%
Germany 950.4 803.9 -15.4% -21%
Greece 70.1 93.4 33.2% +25%
Iceland 1.9 2.2 17.0% +10%

2
emissions from fuel combustion (in Mt) and Kyoto targets. Source: IEA,
2010