Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey

71
16
14
13
11
9
8
8
7
7
6 6
6
5
4
3
2
2
1
1
2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
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1
1 1

28
27
24
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18
32
34
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42 42
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40

67
68 68
70
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75
72
66
66
65
60
54
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53
53
54
54
54

1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
% of total installed capacity
LIGNITE
RENEWABLE
Hard coal
Total Indigenous
energy sources
Imported energy sources:
Oil, Natural gas, Hard coal


86
84
81
82
81
82
79
75
61
63
55
49
60
38
54
45
47
34
32
31
33
30
26
26
29
26
24
24
26
29

89
91
93
92
92
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90
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87
87
87
87 87
90
89
90
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89
89
73
78
75
68

51 51
48
54
51
52
47
46
48
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1940
1942
1944
1946
1948
1950
1952
1954
1956
1958
1960

11 %
21 %
51 %
2 %
47 %
30 %
17 %
1.9 %
20 %
19 %
2.5 %
Coal
Total
3 %
(Coal+Renewable)
Total
45 %
49 %
25 %
7 %
17 %
14 %
10 %
2.5 %
1.9 %
6 %

Fig. 12. During period of the 1940- 2009 electricity production by energy sources (data from
TEIAS 2009)


3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
3
2
3
3
3
3
3 3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
17
16
13
14

15
18
18
20
21
20
35
27
29
21
25
38
46
42
43
46
49
51
53
41
44
35
30
42
60
35
40
38
40
46

77
79
79
82
86
74
75
74
76
78
75
74
75
71
70
62
55
50 50
44
47
45
45
41
40
41
0
10
20
30
40

1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
% of total electricity production
LIGNITE
RENEWABLE
Hard coal
Total Indigenous
energy sources
Imported energy sources:
Oil, Natural gas, Hard coal

Fig. 13. During of the period 1970 and 2009 development of the share of renewable energy
and coal in the total electricity production (data from TEIAS 2009)
3.2 Renewable energy potential of Turkey
The potentials of the main renewable energy sources of Turkey are collectively given in
Table 2. The economical potential given in the Table equals the usable potential. The mostly

(Mtoe/year)
Electricity (MW)
(billion kWh/year)

31 500
-
4 500
-

7 500
5.4
500
-

2 843
1.8
350
1.4
Solar
Heat + electricity (MW)
(billion kWh/year)
(Mtoe/year)

111 500 x 10
3

977 000
80 000

1 400 000


7

25
Table 2. Potential of Renewable Energy Sources (MENR,2009)
4. Coal and energy
4.1 Energy production based on coal
The coal production culture in Turkey was introduced with the exploration of hard coal by
Uzun Mehmet in Köseağzı quarter of Kestaneci village in Zonguldak province on 8
th

November 1829. Up to date, hard coal has been produced in Turkey. There is no definite
information about the first use of lignite. It is known that lignite was being produced in
many locations in Turkey, especially in Soma -Kütahya (Yılmaz, 2008).
Hard coal is used intensively in industry and heating and especially in electricity production.
Lignite coals are used mostly for electricity production since its calorific value is low. The
share of coal in overall primary energy production was 31% (lignite 12%, hard coal 19%) in
1970, and it increased to 46% (lignite 38%, hard coal 8%) in 1990 with an increase rate of 48%.
In 2009, the share of coal in total primary energy sources has increased and reached to 57%
(lignite 53%, hard coal 4%) as shown in Fig 14. The primary energy production of Turkey has
been limited and the largest share in this increase belonged to lignite. It is hope that this rate of
percentage increase will continue in the following years. On the other hand, the share of coal
in overall consumption was 24% (lignite 9%, hard coal 15%) in 1970, and it increased to 31%

Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources

74
(lignite 19%, hard coal 12%) in 1990 with an increase rate of 16%. In 2009, the share of coal in
total primary energy sources decreased and reached to 29% (lignite15%, hard coal 14%) (Fig.
15). Turkey’s primary energy consumption is higher than energy production. In other words,

5
5
5
4
4
4
5
4
5
4
5
5
4
4
4
12
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15
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30
32

36
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48
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43
45
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45
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48
50
47
45
43

1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
% of total production

3
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
11
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
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3 4

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15
15
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21
22

24
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28
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30
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986


Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey

75
4.2 Coal potential, production and consumption
Turkey has an important potential from the point of view of coal reserves (Fig. 16). Apart
from the hard coal and lignite reserves, asphaltite, bituminous shale and peat reserves are
also present in the country. Turkey’s significant hard coal basin exists in Zonguldak
province which is on the Western Back Sea Region. The total reserve (ready + proven +
probable + possible) is about 1.3 billion ton (Table 3). Hard coal reserves are distributed into
five districts. Distributions of total reserves among these five districts are: Ereğli 34 million
tons; Zonguldak 884 million tons; Amasra 408 million tons; Kurucaşile 1 million tons;
Azdavay 5 million tons. The calorific value of the hard coal differs from 6.500 to 6.650
kcal/kg (Table 3) (TTK, 2004,2009; TKI, 2004,2009).

BİNGÖL
KAHRAMANMARAŞ
SİVAS
ÇORUM
MUĞLA
DENİZLİ
KÜTAHYA
ESKİŞEHİR
ANKARA
BOLU
KONYA
BURSA
ÇANAKKALE
BALIKESİR
MANİSA

Millio n ton
38
Million ton
104
Million ton
6
Million ton

3
Million ton
340
Million ton
323
Million ton
435
Million ton
ADANA
1.3
Billion ton
HARD COAL
LIGNITE

Fig. 16. Distribution of hard coal and lignite reserves of Turkey

Location RESERVES (1000 TON)
Calorific
value, kCal/kg
Province Dictrict Proven Probable Possible Total
Zonguldak Ereğli 11.241 15.86 7.883 34.984 6650
Zonguldak Center 351.272 294.043 239.029 884.345 6650


x100], %
Consumption
[x1000 ton/year]
Distribution of total
consumption, %
Production Consumption

Industry

Power
station

House
hold
Industry

Power
station
House
hold
2000

2,392 15,525 15.41 12,777

2,034

714 82.3 13.1 4.6
2001


935 68.1 27.1 4.8
2006

2,319 22,798 10.17 16,315

5,618

865 71.6 24.6 3.8
2007

2,462 25,388 9.70 18,611

5,912

865 73.3 23.3 3.4
2008

2,601 22,720 11.45 15,658

6,197

865 68.9 27.3 3.8
2009

2,863 23,698 12.08 16,472

6,361

865 69.5 26.8 3.7
Table 4. Hardcoal production, consumption and using areas

0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
2000 2001 2002 2003 200
4
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Power station
industry
House hold
Hard coal consumption areas [%]

Fig. 17. Distribution of hard coal consumptions by sectoral (data from MENR 2000-2010)

Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey

77
Lignite reserves constitute the large portion of total coal reserves. Lignite deposits
dispersed all over the country (Yılmaz, 2006). The most important known lignite deposits
reserves are located in Afşin Elbistan, Muğla Soma, Tunçbilik, Seyitömer, Beypazarı and
Sivas regions (Fig. 16). About 40% (4.9 billion tons) lignite reserve is located around Afsin-
Elbistan which is in the southeast of the Turkey (Yılmaz and Uslu 2007). Although total
lignite reserves were about 8.07 billion tons (TKI 2009; TKI, 2010), Turkey’s new total

Location Reserves (1000 TON) Calorific
value,
Kcal/kg
Province Dictrict Proven Probable Possible Total
Şırnak Silopi 31.812 16.21 1 49.022 5310
Şırnak Merkez 7.724 13.26 6.3 27.284 5330
TOPLAM 39.536 29.47 7.3 76.306 -
Table 5. Distribution of Lignite and Asphaltite Reserves of Turkey (Data from, TTK, 2004;
TKI, 2010).
The lignite mined from most lignite deposits is low calorific value lignite and the calorific
value of 90% of them is between 1000 and 3000 Kcal/kg (Fig.18). In this context, a
significant part of the lignite production is used for electricity production (Fig 19.). Lignite
production depends on electricity production. Lignite production reached to 76 million
ton/year especially in 1970 and 2009 term, when the lignite production is very effective in
electricity production. Its production decreased to 45 million ton/year after 2000, since its
use in electricity production repressed after 2000. The overall lignite consumption can be
met by the domestic production (Fig.19.)

Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources

78
Lignite production depends on electricity production While 1% of produced lignite in 1970
was used in power stations, 5% was used as house hold and industry. In 2000, the share of
lignite consumption by sectoral were 82% and 18% power station and house hold and
industry, respectively. In 2009, the share of the power station in lignite consumption
increased and reached to 83% (Fig. 19).

<1000 Kcal/kg
%3.2
1000-2000Kcal/kg

8
10
12
13
6
9
15
35
46
52
64
57
60
72
75
76
6
9
15
36
44
53
61
58
61
72
76
76
0.0
10.0

increase to 28% in 2020 and no significant change is planned in electricity production
using renewable sources and it is projected that this share will decrease to 23% in 2020. In
other words, Turkey does not plan to introduce any expansion in energy production until
2020 when compared with today’s conditions according to its energy projections
(Yılmaz,2008; TPAO 2006).
13
14
16
17
17
18
11
9
9
10
9
9
73
74
72
71
68
70
27


Fig. 20. Projection of development of the share of domestic energy sources in overall
primary energy consumption (data from MENR, 2006,2010).

Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources

80
49
54
57
57
54
61
39
35
32
33
28
30
12
11
11
10
18
9
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%

41
40
41
47
50
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
2006 2007 2008 2009 2015 2020
% of total consumption
FUTURE
Total Indigenous
energy sources
Imported energy sources:
Oil, Natural gas, Hard coal
COAL=Hard coal+Lignite
RENEWABLE

Fig. 22. Projection of development of domestic energy sources in electricity production (data
from MENR, 2006,2010).
6. Discussion and conclusion
Turkey imports about 70% of the energy sources it uses in primary energy consumption.

200
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Import
55 41 52 69 98 117 140 170 202 141
Export
28 31 36 47 63 73 86 107 132 102
Energy imp/import. [ %]
17 2
0
18 17 15 18 21 20 24 21
55
41
52
69
98
117
140
170
202
141
28
31
36
47
63
73
86
107
132

proposed that 50% of the electricity production will be imported. It is planned that the
overall demand for electricity will be 500 billion kWh in 2020. However, there is a
potential for producing reliable electricity from renewable energy sources (480 billion
kWh) and lignite thermal power plants (100 billion kWh), which are operative and of
which the projects are completed, economically (Table 2.). In other words, Turkey has a
potential for producing electricity it demands by using only its own sources. It is
obligatory to comply with the environmental pollution and emission limits in use and
production of coal. The required measures in this regard has been taken in most of the
operative power plants and the studies for taking such measures continue rapidly in the
other power plants. It is vital for Turkey to take operating the coal reserves by using
environment-friendly technologies and utilizing its sources at the highest level among its
priorities (Yılmaz, 2008).
7. References
Anaç, S. (2003). The Place of Coal in Energy Policies in Turkey, Turkish Coal Enterprise,
Available from .
Arıoğlu E. (ed).(1994). General Outlook to Turkish Lignite Sector, Privatisation in the World
and Turkey, Turkish Mine Workers Union Publication, Ankara.
Arıoğlu, E.(1996) General Outlook For Worldwide Hard Coal Mining and The
Evaluation of The Zonguldak Coal Enterprise/TURKEY, Privatization in The
UK and Turkey With Particular Reference to The Coal Sector
(Ed.M.Dartan), Marmara University European Community Institute, Istanbul,
May
Arıoğlu, E., & Yılmaz, A.O. (1997a). A Short Statistical Evaluation of Turkish Lignite Sector
During 1983–1993. Istanbul Branch of Mining Engineers Chamber of Turkey, Working
Report No. 2, Istanbul.
Arıoğlu, E; Yılmaz, A.O. (1997b). Turkish Economy With Macro Economic
Indications and Statistical Evaluation of Turkish Mining Sector, Istanbul
Branch of Mining Engineers Chamber of Turkey, Working Report No :5,
Istanbul
Arıoğlu, E., & Yılmaz, A.O. (2002a). General Outlook for Worldwide Hard Coal Mining

rprte/ energytr2.htmS.
TTK, (2004, 2009). Turkish Hard Coal Enterprises, Annual Reports, Zonguldak. Available
from:
TUSIAD. 1998. The Evaluation of Turkey’s Energy Strategies Toward to 21st Century.
Publication Number TUSIAD-T/98-12/239, İstanbul.
Yılmaz, A.O, & Arıoğlu E.(2003). The Importance of Lignite in Energy Production and
Turkish Coal Enterprise. In: Proceedings of the 18th International Mining Congress
and Fair of Turkey. Mining Engineers Chamber of Turkey. Antalya.
Yılmaz, A. O, & Aydıner, K. (2009). The Place of Hard Coal in Energy Supply Pattern of
Turkey, Energy Sources, part B, 4, 179-189.
Yılmaz, A. O., & Uslu, T.(2006). The Role of Coal in Energy Production—Consumption and
Sustainable Development of Turkey. Energy Policy, 35, 1117–1128.
Yılmaz, A. O.& Uslu, T.(2007). Energy policies of Turkey During the Period 1923–2003.
Energy Policy, 35, 258–264.
Yılmaz, A.O. &Uslu, T. & Savaş M.(2005). The Role of Coal in Sustainable Development of
Turkey, Turkish 5th Energy Symposium, Electricity Engineers Chamber of Turkey,
Ankara.
Yılmaz, A.O.(2003). General Outlook to Turkish Energy Sector and the Importance of Coal
in Energy Production. In: Turkish Fourth Energy Symposium, Electricity Engineers
Chamber of Turkey, Ankara.
Yılmaz, A.O., (2004,2011) . Energy Statistics of Turkey, Unpublished Documents,
Trabzon.
Yılmaz, A. O.(2006). Coal potential of Turkey: Coal and Energy, Energy Exploration
Exploitation ,Volume 24, Number 6, 371–390
Yılmaz, A.O.(2008). Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey,
Renewable Energy, 33, 950–
959.
Yılmaz, A.O.(2009). Present Coal Potential of Turkey and Coal Usage in Electricity
Generation, Energy Sources, part B, 4, 135-144.


Chubut (Seitz, 2006). In Peru, there are some demonstrative projects of the use of wind
power to electrify isolated communities, the first one in El Alumbre (Ferrer-Martí et al.,
2010).
In Bolivia, the government's policies on rural electrification are governed by the Rural
Electrification Regulation, which states that the Department of Energy is responsible for
promoting sustainable development, seeking expanded coverage of electricity services
throughout the country. Therefore it has the responsibility to update and develop the rural
energy strategy, including the Indicative Rural Electrification Plan to facilitate the work of
agents in the development of rural electrification. The basic principles that are taken into
account are:

*
Bruno Domenech
1
, Walter Canedo
2
, Carlos Reza
2
, Mirtha Tellez
3
, Milton Dominguez
3
,
Lorenzo Perone
4
and Jaime Salinas

1
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya - Barcelona Tech, Spain
2

implement the knowledge acquired in both countries, and to adapt it to the special
characteristics of Bolivia. The overall objective in Bolivia is to develop and disseminate
knowledge, as well as human and technological capabilities to initiate demonstration
projects, working with different stakeholders from the perspective of utilization of
renewable energy sources, and promoting and participating in the selection and
management of technology solutions.
Within the overall program, the project "Improving Access to Renewable Energy in Rural
Communities in Bolivia" aims to improve the quality of life of rural population by having
access to energy in remote areas through renewable energy. The specific objectives of this
project were:
1. To improve technical and management capabilities of the Bolivian plateau for access to
the energy in the population, local governmental bodies and other stakeholders.
2. To increase access to efficient and sustainable energy through improved use of biomass
and the production of electricity through renewable energy sources.
The actions were carried out with specialists in social and technological issues to promote
that users, through processes of participation and training, learn to manage, to maintain and
to make sustainable their energy systems. These actions will contribute improving their
level of human development, life expectancy, increasing opportunities for women, and
access to education for children and adults, protecting natural environment through more
friendly family economies. All the actions were performed jointly with the efforts of the
beneficiaries - in coordination with the municipal government.
Specifically, this paper examines the interventions in the municipalities of Turco and
Challapata led by Engineers Without Borders, CINER and Mosoj Causay, with the
collaboration of both municipal governments, the financing of the Spanish Agency for
International Development (AECID) and the Government of Navarra (Spain). Within the
Experiences of Community Wind Electrification
Projects in Bolivia: Evaluation and Improvements for Future Projects

87
municipalities of Turco and Challapata, two communities were selected with 13 and 9

communication (audiovisual, mobile, etc.) and other energy uses account for 11% of energy
demand. Although not large amounts, lighting (5%) and entertainment (2%) are key
demands to improve the quality of rural life and the integration of people through media.
Productive uses of energy in these families represent a marginal percentage of total
consumption; whenever they exist they are very specific, and must be analysed in particular
way.
The structure of economic costs of energy source in rural scattered communities is different
from population centers: batteries represent the largest amount of expenditure (34.3%),
followed by the consumption of diesel (20%), LPG (18.8%), kerosene (15.3%) and candles
(11.6%). In the highlands, average annual spending in U.S. dollars on traditional energy
sources is the lowest in the country with a total of $ 40 U.S. for the population in extreme
poverty.

Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources

88
Due to low income of people in remote rural areas, the ability to pay is weak. However the
amount of money previously used for the purchase of other energy sources (candles,
kerosene, batteries, gas, etc.) may now be used to cover the cost of the electricity service. It is
estimated that nearly all population strata might pay a US$ 2.5 monthly fee, considering that
the payment will be for more convenient energy services than those previously used. It is
noteworthy that the percentage of expenses for energy supply with respect to income is
higher when the income level is lower.
Some people have expressed their desire to obtain higher rates of public or international
cooperation funding for electrification systems; this is probably due to very welfare
practices developed by institutions in the past plans in these rural areas. However, it is
obvious the willingness of communities and families to finance their consumption in case of
having electricity. Moreover, it is worth to consider that making periodic payments for the
energy service is not a common practice; traditional energy sources were acquired on
specific occasions when families had available economic resources.

. According to the 2001 census, the life expectancy at birth in the
municipality of Turco is 49.6 years. Challapata has a much larger population with 24370
inhabitants almost evenly distributed between men and women being 50% of the population
under 20 years. In contrast, in Challapata the population is increasing, it was estimated for
2009 a total of 27517 inhabitants. The density of the population of the municipality is 8.08
inhabitants per km
2
. According to the 2001 census, the life expectancy at birth in the
municipality of Challapata is 53.7 years.
Experiences of Community Wind Electrification
Projects in Bolivia: Evaluation and Improvements for Future Projects

89
The 2001 census data showed that the global literacy rate for the entire Turco municipality is
86.4% that is below the departmental average of 94.0%. The average years of study at the
municipality are 5.7. Women still are disadvantaged in their access to education, as an
example their illiteracy rate is 10.7%, while for men it has decreased to 4.2%. In the
municipality of Challapata the situation is even more limited, with the overall literacy rate
of 76.9% and the average years of schooling of 4.4.
The lack of permanent jobs and income security causes migration of the population of both
municipalities to larger towns and cities from the department of Oruro, other departments
of Bolivia, or even neighbouring cities of Chile. According to the Municipal Development
Program (PDM) of 2007, 7.48% of the population of Turco has emigrated temporarily or
permanently . This occurs more frequently among men (74.59%) from 10 to 50 years,
children and youth because of higher level studies and for jobs to supplement the family
income. In Challapata, according to the PDM 2002, the migration amounts to 29.21% of the
population.
2.3 Basic services
According to the laws of municipal management, basic services are under the responsibility
of municipal government. However, the municipality of Turco has not assumed

90
engaging in minor or complementary activities, such as handicrafts. Agricultural production
is geared directly to consumption. Potato and quinoa are the products that are prevalent
among families in the municipality of Turco and barley in the case of Challapata.
2.5 Community organization and leadership
A community workshop in each municipality of Turco and Challapata was realized to know
the institutional actors in municipality that should be considered allies when designing in
the management model of the electricity service. These institutions are considered
depending on the area in which they operate, from the communal, municipal, provincial,
departmental, national and international levels. The participants of the workshop did not
identify all the institutions, but only those related to the Municipal Government and Ayllu,
the indigenous and original management and decision organization at community level.
Therefore, to complete the institutional landscape the PDM was used as well as observations
and findings in the towns.
3. Wind resource assessment
Since June 2010 Bolivia has a new Wind Atlas, which identifies the potential of wind
anywhere in the country, with the usable energy to generate electricity or direct use in a
mechanical way. The Atlas was commissioned by TDE (Transportadora de Energía –
nationalized by the Bolivian Government) and the World Bank to the consultancy 3 TIER
specialist on meteorological simulation models. The model was developed ased on
geological, topographic and satellite statistics over the past 30 years, and the results were
validated with records from weather stations in Bolivia.
The Atlas is based on data and maps on a platform of universal and indefinite access via the
Internet and through entities that have offered themselves as managers of the base
(www.3tier.com/firstlook). Bolivia Wind Atlas identifies areas of high potential use of wind,
as is the case of the Santa Cruz region, the provinces of North and South Lopez in Potosí, a
corridor between Santa Cruz, Cochabamba and La Paz, a northern-southern corridor
between the shores of Lake Titicaca, Oruro and west of the city of Potosí, where the project
area is.
Although the atlas gives an indication of interesting potential areas and communities, for