Renewable Energy Use and Energy Efficiency – A Critical Tool for Sustainable Development

51
3. They are clean and pollution-free and therefore are sustainable natural form of energy.
4. They can be cheaply and continuously harvested and therefore sustainable source of
energy.
Unlike the nuclear and fossil fuel plants which belong to big companies, governments, or
state around enterprises, renewable energy can be set up in small units and is therefore
suitable for community management and ownership. In this way, value from renewable
energy projects can be kept in the community.
Transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy will not result in net job losses or cause
harm to the economy. Renewal energy technologies (RETs) are labour intensive, and can
produce more jobs than fossil fuel or nuclear industries. When RETs are properly integrated
into national development plans and implemented, they can substantially reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and simultaneously increase employment (Pearce et al, 1989).
Moreover, it will also enhance energy security by reducing reliance on oil, preserve the
competitiveness of energy, lead to savings for consumers and provide transitional assistance
to workers in negatively affected industries and communities. With the right approach the
interest of working families and the environment can come together (Pearce et al, 1989).
2. What is energy efficiency?
Energy efficiency means improvement in practice and products that reduce the energy
necessary to provide services like lightning, cooling, heating, manufacturing, cooking,
transport, entertainment etc. Energy efficiency products essentially help to do more work
with less energy. Thus, the efficiency of an appliance or technology is determined by the
amount of energy needed to provide the energy service. For instance, to light a room
with an incandescent light bulb of 60w for one hour requires 60w/h. A compact
florescent light bulb would provide the same or better lighting at 11w and only use
11w/h. This means that 49w (82% of energy) is saved for each hour the light is turned
on.
Making homes, vehicles, and businesses more energy efficient is seen as a largely

devices to collect and convert the sun's rays to useful energy and are located near the
users they supply. Passive residential solar technologies involve the natural transfer (by
radiation, convection and conduction) of solar energy without the use of mechanical
devices.
Lovins argued that besides environmental benefits, global political stresses might be
reduced by Western nations committing to the soft energy path. In general, soft path
impacts are seen to be more "gentle, pleasant and manageable" than hard path impacts.
These impacts range from the individual and household level to those affecting the very
fabric of society at the national and international level.
Lovins recognised that major energy decisions are always implemented gradually and
incrementally, and that major shifts take decades. A chief element of the soft path strategy is
to avoid major commitments to inflexible infrastructure that locks us into particular supply
patterns for decades.
Lovins explained that the most profound difference between the soft and hard paths — the
difference that ultimately distinguishes them — is their different socio-political impact. Both
paths entail social change, "but the kinds of social change for a hard path are apt to be less
pleasant, less plausible, less compatible with social diversity and freedom of choice, and less
consistent with traditional values than are the social changes which could make a soft path
work".
Moving towards energy sustainability will require changes not only in the way energy is
supplied, but in the way it is used, and reducing the amount of energy required to deliver
various goods or services is essential. Opportunities for improvement on the demand side of
the energy equation are as rich and diverse as those on the supply side, and often offer
significant economic benefits.
In most places, a lot of energy is wasted because industries, power companies, offices and
households use more energy than is actually necessary to fulfill their needs. The reasons is
because they use old and inefficient equipment and production processes; buildings are
poorly designed; and because of bad practices and habits. With energy efficiency practices
and products, nations can save over 50% of the energy being consumed. Using energy more
efficiently would:

generations to meet their own needs (Hasna, 2007). Adequate and affordable energy
supplies has been key to economic development and the transition from subsistence
agricultural economics to modern industrial and service oriented societies. Energy is central
to improved social and economic well being and is indispensable to most industrial and
commercial wealth organization. It is the key for relieving poverty, improving human
welfare and raising living standards. But however essential it may be for development,
energy is only a means to an end. The end is good health, high living standards, a
sustainable economy and a clean environment.
Much of the current energy supply and use, based as it is, on limited resources of fossil
fuels, is deemed to be environmentally unsustainable. There is no energy production or
conversion technology without risk or waste. Somewhere along all energy chains - from
resource extractions to the provision of energy service – pollutants are produced, emitted or
disposed of, often with severe health and environmental impacts (Dasgupta, 2001; Fatona,
2009). Combustion of fossil fuels is chiefly responsible for urban air pollution, regional
acidification and the risk of human – induced climate change (Dasgupta, 2001; Fatona, 2009).
Achieving sustainable economic development on a global scale will requires the judicious
use of resources, technology, appropriate economic incentives and strategic policy planning
at the local and national levels. It will also require regular monitoring of the impacts of
selected policies and strategies to see if they are furthering sustainable development or if
they should be adjusted (Arrow et al, 2004).
When choosing energy fuels and associated technologies for the production, delivery and
use of energy services, it is essential to take into account economic, social and environmental
consequences (Ott, 2003; Wallace, 2005). There is need to determine whether current energy
use is sustainable and, if not, how to change it so that it is. This is the purpose of energy
indicators, which address important issues within three of the major dimensions of
sustainable development: economic, social and environmental.

Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources

54

ECO5: Resources-to-production ratio
 Total estimated resources
 Total energy production
ECO6: Industrial energy intensities
 Energy use in industrial sector and by manufacturing branch
 Corresponding value added
ECO7: Agricultural energy intensities
 Energy use in agricultural sector
 Corresponding value added
ECO8: Service and commercial energy intensities
 Energy use in service and commercial sector
 Corresponding value added
ECO9: Household energy intensities
 Energy use in households and by key end use

Renewable Energy Use and Energy Efficiency – A Critical Tool for Sustainable Development

55
 Number of households, floor area, persons per household, appliance ownership
ECO10: Transport energy intensities
 Energy use in passenger travel and freight sectors and by mode
 Passenger-km travel and tonne-km freight and by mode
ECO11: Fuel shares in energy and electricity
 Primary energy supply and final consumption, electricity generation and generating
capacity by fuel type
 Total primary energy supply, total final consumption, total electricity generation and
total generating capacity
ECO12: Non-carbon energy share in energy and electricity
 Primary supply, electricity generation and generating capacity by non-carbon energy
 Total primary energy supply, total electricity generation and total generating capacity

 Amount of solid waste
 Energy produced

Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources

56
ENV8: Ratio of solid waste properly disposed of to total generated solid waste
 Amount of solid waste properly disposed of
 Total amount of solid waste
ENV9: Ratio of solid radioactive waste to units of energy produced
 Amount of radioactive waste (cumulative for a selected period of time)
 Energy produced
ENV10: Ratio of solid radioactive waste awaiting disposal to total generated solid
radioactive waste
 Amount of radioactive waste awaiting disposal
 Total volume of radioactive waste
5. Dimensions of sustainable development
Sustainable development is essentially about improving quality of life in a way that can be
sustained, economically and environmentally, over the long term supported by the
institutional structure of the country (Adams, 2006; Chambers et al, 2000).


Efficient energy pricing is a key to efficient energy supply and use and socially efficient
levels of pollution abatement.
Addressing energy security is one of the major objectives in the sustainable development
criteria of many countries. Interruptions of energy supply can cause serious financial and
economic issues. To support the goals of sustainable development, energy must be available
at all times, in sufficient quantities and at affordable prices. Secure energy supplies are
essential to maintain economic activities and providing reliable energy services to society.
Environmental dimension:- The production, distribution and use of energy create pressures
on the environment in the household, workplace and city and at the national, regional and
global levels. The environmental impacts can depend greatly on how energy is produced
and used, the fuel mix, the structure of the energy systems and related energy regulatory
actions and pricing structure. Gaseous emissions from the burning of fossil fuels pollute the
atmosphere. Large hydropower dams cause silting. Both the coal and nuclear fuel cycles
emit some radiation and generate waste. And gathering firewood can lead to deforestation
and desertification Daly & Cobb, 1990; Hilgenkamp, 2005).
Water and land quality are important sub-themes of the environmental dimensions. Land is
more than just physical space and surface topography; it is in itself an important natural
resource, consisting of soil and water essential for growing food and providing habitat for
diverse plant and animal communities. Non – renewable energy activities may result in land
degradation and acidification that affect the quality of water and agricultural productivity.
Land is also affected by energy transformation processes that often produce solid wastes,
including radioactive wastes, which require adequate disposal. Water quality is affected by
the discharge of contaminants in liquid effluents from energy systems, particularly from the
mining of non renewable energy resources, which is environmentally unsustainable (Daly &
Cobb1990; Hilgenkamp, 2005).

Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources

58
Environmental sustainability is the process of making sure current processes of interaction

development. A society seeking sustainable development ideally must utilize only energy
resources which cause no environmental impact. Clearly, a strong relation exists between
energy efficiency and environmental impact since, for the same services or products, less
resource utilization and pollution is normally associated with increased energy efficiency.
Sustainable energy is the provision of energy that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Sustainable energy
sources are most often regarded as including all renewable energy sources, such as
hydroelectricity, solar energy, wind energy, wave power, geothermal energy, bio-energy,
and tidal power. It usually also includes technologies that improve energy efficiency.
Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to sustainable energy as they
generally contribute to world energy security, reducing dependence on fossil fuel resources
and providing opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases. As such, sustainable energy
promotes sustainability. Sustainability, here, is twofold, as it constitutes self-sustenance and
the ability to foster sustainable development.
By being self-sustaining the energy source is in essence limitless. Solar energy, wind energy,
geothermal energy, hydropower and biomass are all self-sustaining. They all have sources
that cannot be depleted. These energy sources allow for the conservation of other energy
sources, like trees that would have been used for charcoal production. Using these
"renewable" energies also encourages the protection of the environment which traditional
energy sources have helped to destroy. The use of some traditional energy sources, like oil
and charcoal, the Natural Resources Conservation Authority (NRCA) reported "carries with

Renewable Energy Use and Energy Efficiency – A Critical Tool for Sustainable Development

59
it a number of environmental problems, such as water and air pollution and the
contamination of soils." Utilizing sustainable energy would then lead to the conservation of
the environment which would eventually lead to a development which meets the needs of
the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. In other words, sustainable energy use leads to sustainable development.

energy security. Energy and environmental science (Royal Society of Chemistry) 2:
148
Krech, Shepard (2004). "Encyclopedia of World Environmental History: A-E".
Routledge.
Ott, K. (2003). "The Case for Strong Sustainability." In: Ott, K. & P. Thapa (eds.)
(2003).Greifswald’s Environmental Ethics. Greifswald: Steinbecker Verlag Ulrich
Rose.

Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources

60
Pearce, D., A. Markandya and E. Barbier (1989). Blueprint for a green economy, Earthscan,
London, Great Britain
Wallace, Bill (2005). Becoming part of the solution : the engineer’s guide to sustainable development.
Washington, DC: American Council of Engineering Companies. Initiative 62(3):
282–292.
4
Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey
Ali Osman Yılmaz
Karadeniz Technical University/Department of Mining Engineering, Trabzon
Turkey
1. Introduction
The development level of a country is directly related to its economical and social level. One
of the most important factors that takes an active role in achieving such development level is
energy. Energy, which is the requirement of sustainable development, can only be an
impulsive force in industrialization and overall development of societies if it is supplied on
time, with sufficient quantity and under reliable economical conditions and considering the
environmental impacts. The demand for energy increases rapidly in parallel with the
population increase, industrialization and technological developments in Turkey and the
other developing countries in the world.

73.722.988 (2010)
 Gross national product (GNP)
615 billion $
 GNP per capita
8.215 $/person
 Primary energy production
30.328 ktoe (thousand tons of oil equivalent)
 Distribution of primar
y
ener
gy
production

Lignite 52%,wood 12%, hydraulic 10%,
Petroleum 8%,hard coal 4%, other 14 %
 Primary energy consumption
104.117 Ktoe
 Distribution of primary energy
consumption
Petroleum 29 %, natural gas 31 %, lignite 15 %,
hard coal 14 %, hydraulic 3 %, other 8 %.
 Distribution of primary energy
consumption by sectors
Industry 23 %,residential 27 %,
transportation 15%,
energy 25%, other 10%
 Rate of primary energy
[production/consumption]
29 %
 Primary energy consumption per capita

Coal 42%,natural gas 21%, nuclear14 %,
hydraulic 16%,
petroleum 6%, biomass 3%, other 4 %. (2007)
 World electricity production per capita
3012 kWh/person (2008)
 World electricity consumption per capita

2516 kWh/person (2008)
Table 1. Energy Profile of Turkey (2009)

Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey

63
15
14
15
16
16
16
16
17
18
17
17
18
19
19
20
22
24

32
33
31
32
32
34
36
37
39
42
47
48
51
53
54
56
59
58
63
68
72
73
73
79
74
77
82
86
89
98

39
40
38
33
33
32
29
28
28
27
26
28
29
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
20
40
60
80
100
120

2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Primary energy production-consumption [Mtoe]
[Production/Consumption]x 100 [%]
Consumption
Production
[production/Consumption]x100
Primary energy production compared with primary energy consumption

Fig. 1. During period of 1970-2009, primary energy production-consumption and rates of
production and consumption (data from MENR,1970-2009)
In this chapter, the primary energy production– consumption of renewable energy sources
of Turkey and coal as well as the development of their use rates in electricity production are
discussed for a definite time period. In addition, some information is given about the
projected use rates of such energy sources in energy production and projected consumption
in Turkey for the years 2015 and 2020.
2. Energy outlook of Turkey
When the Republic of Turkey was founded in 1923, Turkey’s population was 12 million.
Installed capacity of electricity production, total electricity production, per capita electricity
production and per capita electricity consumption were 33MW, 45 GWh, 3.6kWh and 3.3
kWh, respectively. Initially, almost all electricity demand was met by thermal power plants.
The foundation of the Turkish Republic became the start of the development of the country.

shown in Fig 2. As seen in the figure, renewable, oil-natural gas and coal accounted for 8%,
6%, 86 of electricity production in 1940. The share of the coal reduced continuously in the
following years and reached as 55% in 1960, 25% in 1980 and again increased to 29%(imported
coal included) in 2009. The increase rate of use of renewable energy sources was accelerated
especially from 1960s, as seen in the electricity production capacity, and use rate of renewable
energy sources was recorded as 8 % in 1940, 37% in 1960, 52% in 1980 and decreased to 19% in
2009. Because, after the year 2000, a sharply increase in share of imported natural gas in
electricity production, lowered the use of domestic lignite and hard coal. Turkey is dependent
on foreign countries especially in terms of oil and natural gas. In 1960, imported oil made up
8% of electricity production and this rate abruptly increased in the after years and it’s had been
reached 30% in 1970. During period 2000s years, imported of the natural gas sharply increased
and reacted to 50% in 2009. Natural gas has been fast-growing fuel of energy market in
Turkey. The tremendous growth and increased trend in gas demand during the period 1990-
2009 showed that Turkey will need much more gas in the following years. Especially the share
of the natural gas consumed in electricity generation has sharply increased and is considered
to increase also in the future (Yılmaz 2008; Yılmaz 2011).
Turkey became more dependent on imports year to year. It still supplies about 71% of its
primary energy consumption from imported energy sources. This percentage is 59% for
electricity production. These rates are exactly seen in Fig 3. and Fig. 4 during of the period
1970-2009. In Fig 3 show that Turkey’s primary energy consumption was 77% share of the
domestic energy sources in 1970. While 54% of the consumed energy in 1980 was by the
domestic energy sources, this percentage decreased to 33% and 29% in 2000 and 2009
respectively. On the other hand, share of the imported energy sources was increased from
23% in 1970 to 71% in 2009. In Figure 4 distribution of electricity production by domestic
and imported energy sources are given in historical order. As seen in Figure, while domestic
energy sources had a share of 68% in electricity production in 1970, imported energy sources
had a share of 42% in electricity generation. After the 1970s years, oil crisis started. Turkey
gave importance on lignite, coal and own renewable energy potential sources. So the rate of
electricity production using Turkey’s domestic sources was increased. But in 1990s use of
imported natural gas in electricity production has sharply increased to 45% and 59% in 2000

T
U
R
A
L
G
A
S

[
%
]
100
80
60
40
20
0
C
O
A
L

[
%
]
(Renewable,Oil,Coal)
Proportions
1940
1956

36
40
45
48
45
44
46
43
44
46
46
44
45
46
49
49
52
53
52
56
54
58
60
61
60
62
67
67
68
71

46
42
40
39
40
38
33
33
32
29
28
28
27
26
28
29
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1970
1971
1972

2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
% of total Consumption
INDIGENOUS ENERGY SOURCES
IMPORTED ENERGY SOURCES

Fig. 3. During the period 1970 and 2009, primary energy consumption with domestic and
imported energy sources (data from MENR, 1970-2009)

Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources

6632
43
46
53
46
36
31
35
31
26
26

64
69
65
69
74
74
76
78
73
77
79
79
82
86
74
75
74
76
78
75
74
75
71
70
62
55
50
50
44
47

1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
% of total production
INDIGENOUS ENERGY SOURCES
IMPORTED ENERGY SOURCES


PRIMARY ENERGY PRODUCTION-2009 PRIMARY ENERGY CONSUMPTION-2009

Coal
57%
Oil
8%
Natural Gas
2%
Hydraulic
10%
Geothermal
6%
Wood
12%
Animal and wegetable
wast 4%
Other 1%
Renewable
33%

Coal
30%
Oil
29%
Natural Gas
32%
Hydraulic
3%
Geothermal
1%

50
46
43
45
44
46
45
45
47
48
48
48
50
47
45
43
46
49
54
57
57
43
42
43
43
43
45
47
47
46

33
74
75
77
76
79
80
83
83
84
83
86
86
87
88
89
90
88
88
89
88
84
81
83
84
85
86
86
86
87

1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007

1
2
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
5
6
5
4
7
10
6
8
8
9
11
10
12
13
12
13
11
10
9
12

27
27
27
27
27
26
27
27
26
26
27
25
24
22
21
22
21
21
21
20
21
21
21
20
20
19
19
20
20
19

6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
43
42
43
43
43
45
47
47
46
49
50
48
48

15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991

consumption in Turkey is illustrated in Fig. 8 for the term 1970 and 2009. Turkey’s main
energy production resources are hard coal, lignite and renewable energy. The total domestic
energy production was 77% (hard coal 15%, lignite 8%, renewable 33% and other oil-gas
21%) in 1970. The share of total domestic energy sources in overall primary energy
production was 48% (hard coal 4%, lignite 18%, renewable 18 and other 8%) in 1990, and it
decreased to 29% (hard coal 1%, lignite 15%, renewable 10% and other 4%) in 2009. In other
words, the share of the renewable energy resources was 33% in 1970 and decreased to 10%
in 2009. As seen in Figure 8, Turkey’s total domestic energy sources in overall production
has decreased from 1970 and 2009 term. When use of renewable domestic energy sources is
considered in terms of primary energy production, it decreased to 10% levels in the recent
years.
The primary energy consumption of Turkey has increased day by day and it will follow in
the future. The development of the total share of renewable energy sources in primary
energy consumption in Turkey is illustrated in Fig. 9 for the term 1970 and 2009. The energy
sources used for the primary energy production are hydraulic energy, geothermal energy,
wood, animal and vegetable waste. The share of total renewable energy sources in overall
consumption was 33% in 1970 (hydraulic 1% wood 20%, waste and drug 11%) and it
decreased to 23% (hydraulic 4% wood 11%, waste and drug 5%) in 1990. In 2009, the share
of renewable energy sources in total primary energy consumption decreased and reached to
9% (Yılmaz 2008; MENR, 2006-2009; SIS, 2003–2004; TEIAS, 2004-2009).

Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey

69
15
14
13
12
12
11

1
9
9
10
10
11
11
11
11
13
11
12
14
15
16
18
21
22
22
19
21
18
17
19
17
18
17
16
16
17

19
18
18
18
18
18
17
16
16
16
15
13
13
13
12
12
11
11
9
9
10
77
72
68
64
64
60
55
52
55

29
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987

Fig. 8. During of the period 1970 and 2009 development of the total share of renewable
energy sources in primary energy production (data from MENR 1970-2009)

1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
2
4
5
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
5

11
11
10
10
10
9
9
9
8
8
8
7
6
7
6
5
5
5
4
4
4
3
11
11
10
9
9
9
9
8

1
1
33
30
29
27
28
27
26
24
25
28
28
28
27
26
25
23
22
21
23
19
18
18
18
18
18
17
16
16

1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
WOOD

Yılmaz and Aydıner, 2009; Yılmaz and Uslu, 2006).
The most important and the largest energy capacities of Turkey’s are coal and renewable
energy resources. Both energy resources constitute 61% (hard coal 16%, lignite 13% and
renewable 32%) of the total installed capacity in 1970. The total installed capacity increased
and reached to 78% (hard coal 2%, lignite 29% and renewable 47%) until 1995. In this rate
just only hard coal percentage decreased, lignite and renewable increased as domestic
energy sources. But, after this time the total installed capacity decreased and reached to 54%
(hard coal 1%, lignite 18% and renewable 34%) in 2009 as illustrated in Fig 11.
In Figure 12, distribution of electricity production of Turkey by energy resources is given in
a long historical order for 1940 and 2009 term. As seen in the Figure, coal (especially hard
coal) had a share of 80% in electricity production in 1940. In the same year, the share of
electricity production by resources was 6%, 3%, 6%, 5%, for lignite, renewable, crude oil and
other, respectively. The rate of electricity production using renewable energy resources and
lignite had begun increasing in time reached to 21% and 14% respectively in 1973. The share
of hard coal sharply decreased and reached to 12% in 1973. By the middle of 1960s, use of oil

Hard coal
Lignite
İmported
coal
Renewable
Petroleum
Natural gas
Other
68
67
65
66
65
64

26
28
27 27
28
29
30
30
34
37
37
32
32
32
31
31
29
30
30
30
29
28
26
26
25
22
23
23
23
25
25

61
59
57
60
64
65
65
66
67
68 68
70
75
76
76 76
76
77
75
74
73
73
76
77
77
78
77
75
72
66
67
66

1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
% of total
43 %
25 %
28 %
3%
55 %
15


Fig. 10. During period of the 1940- 2009 distribution of installed capacity by energy sources
(data from TEIAS 2009)