ELECTRICITY
INFRASTRUCTURES IN THE
GLOBAL MARKETPLACE
Edited by T. J. Hammons
Electricity Infrastructures in the Global Marketplace
Edited by T. J. Hammons
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Electricity Infrastructures in the Global Marketplace, Edited by T. J. Hammons

1.4 Nuclear Power Reactors 22
1.4.1 Components 22
1.5 the Development History of Current Nuclear Reactors 23
1.5.1 Nuclear Power Plants in Commercial Operation 28
Contents
Contents
VI
1.5.2 Nuclear Generating Capacity By Country 28
1.5.3 Nuclear Growth Since 1970 29
1.6 Current Reactor Types 30
1.6.1 Light Water Reactors 30
1.6.1.1 the Pressurized Water Reactor (Pwr) 30
1.6.1.2 Boiling Water Reactor (Bwr) 30
1.6.2 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (Phwr Or Candu) 31
1.6.3 Advanced Gas-Cooler Reactor (Agr) 31
1.6.4 Light Water Graphite-Moderated Reactor (Rbmr) 31
1.6.5 Fast Neutron Reactors 31
1.7 Small Nuclear Rectors 32
1.7.1 Light Water Reactors 33
1.7.2 High-Temperature Gas-Cooler Reactors 34
1.7.3 Liquid Metal Cooled Fast Reactors 39
1.7.4 Molten Salt Reactors 42
1.7.5 Modular Construction 43
1.7.6 Floating Nuclear Power Plants 44
1.8 Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors 44
1.8.1 Licensing 47
1.8.2 Light Water Reactors 47
1.8.3 High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactors 53
1.8.4 Fast Neutron Reactors 54
1.8.5 Accelerator Driven Systems 56

1.16 References 77
Harnessing Untapped Hydropower 79
2.1 General 79
2.2 System Benets 82
2.3 Situation At Present 84
2.4 Prior Development Methods 86
2.5 Review of Selected Regional Prospects 89
2.6 Canada 90
2.7 South and South East Asia 94
2.7.1 Bhutan 94
2.7.2 India 94
2.7.3 Laos 94
2.7.4 Malaysia 94
2.7.5 Myanmar 95
2.7.6 Nepal 95
2.7.7 Pakistan 95
2.7.8 Vietnam 95
Chapter 2
Contents
VII
2.8 Africa 95
2.8.1 Ethiopia 99
2.8.2 Uganda 99
2.8.3 Zambia 99
2.8.4 Mozambique 100
2.8.5 Ghana 100
2.9 Latin America 100
2.9.1 Argentina 100
2.9.2 Brazil 100
2.9.3 Chile 101

2.16 References 128
Harnessing Untapped Biomass Potential Worldwide 129
3.1 Introduction 129
3.2 An Overview of Biomass Combined Heat
and Power Technologies 131
3.3 Biomass Availability for Biopower Applications 133
3.3.1 Energy Crops 134
3.3.2 Primary Residues 134
3.3.3 Secondary Residues 134
3.3.4 Tertiary Residues 134
3.3.5 Biomass Potential for 2020 135
3.4 Thermo-Chemical Technologies for Biomass Energy 135
3.4.1 Combustion 135
3.4.2 Gasication 136
3.4.3 Pyrolysis 137
3.5 the Biomaxtm A New Biopower Option
for Distributed Generation and Chp 139
3.5.1 Technology 139
3.5.2 Summary of Biomax Features 141
3.5.3 Comparison of Biomax Bio-Power System With Other Power
Generation Technologies 142
3.6 Motivating the Power Industry with Biomass
Policy and Tax Incentives 143
3.7 Energy Generation Through the Combustion
of Municipal Solid Waste 144
3.7.1 the Concept 144
3.7.2 Technical Challenges 144
3.7.3 Biomass and Renewable Status 145
3.7.4 Public Acceptance 145
3.7.5 Potential 146

4.5.1.1 Tidal Forecasts 167
4.5.1.2 Projects 168
4.5.2 Wave Energy 168
4.5.2.1 Wave Energy Forecast 169
4.5.3 oshore Wind 140
4.6 Role of Tidal Power in the United Kingdom
to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions 172
Chapter 4
Contents
XI
4.6.1 Tidal Power 173
4.6.1.1 Physics of Tidal Power 174
4.6.1.2 Types of Tide 174
4.6.1.3 Major Periodic Components 175
4.6.2 European Energy Potential 175
4.6.3 Existing Tidal Energy Schemes 177
4.6.4 Sites Considered for Development Worldwide 177
4.6.5 Harnessing Tidal Power (Flow Or Basin, Existing Tidal Energy
Schemes, Modes of Operation and Conguration, Adaptation of
Tide-Generated to Grid Network Requirements) 177
4.6.5.1 Tidal Flow4.6.5.2 Basin 178
4.6.6 Modes of Operation and Conguration 178
4.6.6.1 Single-Action Outow (Ebb) Generation 178
4.6.6.2 Flood Generation4.6.6.3 Two-Way Generation 178
4.6.6.3 Two-way Generation 179
4.6.7 Tidal Stream 179
4.6.7.1 the Enermax Project (Italy) 179
4.6.7.2 the Blue Energy Project (Canada) 180
4.6.7.3 the Gorlov Helical Turbine (Ght) (Usa) 180
4.6.8 Adaptation to Grid Network Requirements 180

5.2.1 World Energy Consumption 196
5.2.2 Consumption of Renewable Energy Sources 198
5.2.3 Consumption of Geothermal Energy 198
5.2.4 World Energy Resources 201
5.2.5 Cost of Renewable Energy 202

5.3 Geothermal Energy in Usa 203
5.3.1 Tectonic Controls 203
5.3.2 Types of Geothermal Systems 205
5.3.3 U.S. Geothermal Energy Potential 205
5.3.4 Geothermal Energy Use in Usa 206
5.3.5 Operating Conditions for Electrical Generation 206
5.3.6 Direct Use 206
5.3.7 Environmental Constraints 207
5.4 Geothermal Technologies Program:
Us. Department of Energy (Doe) 208
5.4.1 Comprehensive Research Program 208
5.5 Direct Use Geothermal Energy 209
5.5.1 Direct Uses 209
5.5.2 District Heating 210
5.5.3 Agriculture and Aquaculture Applications 211
5.5.4 Future Developments 211
5.6 Improving Geothermal Power Plant 211
5.6.1 Goal and Objectives 211
5.7 Geothermal Drilling R&D Overview 212
5.8 Advanced Power Cycles for Enhancing Geothermal Sustainability 213
5.8.1 Optimization in Design of the Power Cycle 213
5.8.1.1 Heat Cycle Considerations 213
Chapter 5
Contents

5.10.2 Nesjavellir Power Plant 227
5.10.3 Hellisheiði Power Plant 228
5.10.3.1 Construction Plan 229
5.10.3.2 Technical Description 229
5.10.3.3 Production Wells and Directional Drilling 230
5.10.4 Hverahlíð and Bitra 230
5.10.4.1 Environmental Policy 230
5.10.4.2 Power Plant At Bitra 230
5.10.4.3 Power Plant At Hverahlíð 230
5.10.5 Research Projects in the Hengill Area 231
5.10.5.1 New Research Areas in the Hengill Area 231
5.10.5.2 Carb-Fix Nature Imitated in Permanent Co2
Storage Project 231
Contents
XIV
5.11 A Perspective on the Future of Geothermal Energy in Usa 231
5.11.1 Future Resources 232
5.12 Acknowledgement 232
5.13 References 233
Reliability Modelling and Assessment of Power System
Operation in the Competitive Electric Energy Market 237
6.1 Introduction 237
6.2 Basic Features of Monte–Carlo Sequential Simulation Approach 238
6.3 Reliability Modelling and Operational Performance of Isolated Power
Systems With An Increased Penetration of Renewable Energy Sources 239
6.3.1 General 239
6.3.2 General Features of Isolated Power System Operation 239
6.3.3 Computational Methodology 240
6.3.4 Assessment Studies 243
6.4. Reliability and Cost Assessment of Power Transmission

7.4. From the Kyoto Protocol to the Future Power Grid 286
7.5 Acknowledgement 289
7.6 References 289
Europe: Impact of Dispersed and Renewable Generation
on Power System Structure 291
8.1 Introduction 291
8.1.1 New Challenges 292
8.2 Distributed Generation: Challenges and Possible Solutions 292
8.2.1 Drivers for Dg 293
8.2.1.1 Liberalization of Electricity Markets 293
8.2.1.2 Environmental Concerns 294
8.2.2 Grid Protection and Dg 295
8.2.3 Voltage Quality and Dg 296
8.2.4 Practical Distribution Network 297
8.2.5 Energy Security 304
8.2.6 General Summary 304
8.3 New Tasks Create New Solutions for Communication
in Distribution Systems 304
8.3.1 Basic Principles and Tasks 304
8.3.2 Case Study 306
8.3.3 Communication Standards 307
8.3.4 Design of the Communication Network 309
8.3.5 Benets for Other System Services 311
Chapter 8
Contents
XVI
8.4 Integrating Dispersed Generation Into the Danish Power System 312
8.4.1 System Overview 312
8.4.2 Wind Energy 314
8.4.2.1 Meltra 316

9.3.3 Principles of Estimating the System Eciency 343
9.3.4 Case Study 343
Chapter 9
Contents
XVII
9.4 Deregulation of Power Systems in Asia: Special Considerations in
Developing Countries 345
9.4.1 Considerations on Power System Deregulation
in Developing Countries 346
9.4.1.1 Targets of Deregulation 346
9.4.1.2 Considerations on the Scheme
of Power System Deregulation 347
9.4.1.3 Consideration on Risks and their Mitigations 348
9.4.1.4 Other Considerations 351
9.4.2 Power Markets in Ne and Nw China 351
9.4.2.1 Northeast Regional Power Market in China 352
9.4.3 R&D for Future Northwest Regional Power Market 353
9.5 East China Power Market Development and Trial Operation 354
9.5.1 the Development of the Market 355
9.5.1.1 Guidelines 355
9.5.1.2 the Principles of Market Design 355
9.5.1.3 the Stage Objectives 356
9.5.1.4 the Trading Arrangements 356
9.5.1.5 Bidding and Market Clearing Mechanism
of Monthly Market 357
9.5.2 Trial Operation of the Market 357
9.5.2.1 Simulation Results 358
9.5.2.2 Results Analysis 361
9.5.3 Lessons and Recommendations 363
9.5.3.1 Regulations and Policies Need to Be Improved 363

in North Korea 382
9.8.1.3 Power System and Seasonal Load Patterns
in Far East Russia 385
9.8.1.4 Power System Status in North East China 387
9.8.1.5 Power System Status and Seasonal Load Patterns
of Kyushu in Japan 388
9.8.2 Assumed Possible Interconnection
Scenarios in North East Asia 389
9.8.3 Assumed Seasonal Power Exchange Quantity
for Power Flow Calculation 391
9.9 Acknowledgement 392
9.10 References 392
Power Generation in Southern Africa: Energy Trading
and the Southern African Power Pool 397
10.1 Structure and Governing Documents 397
10.1.1 Sapp Vision 399
10.1.2 Sapp Objectives 400
10.1.3 Sapp Mission, Strategy and Values 400
10.1.4 Sapp Coordination Centre 400
10.1.5 Sapp Membership 401
10.2 Sapp Achievements 402
10.2.1 Coordination Centre 402
10.2.2 Documentation Review and Sapp Restructuring 402
10.2.3 Cooperation With the Regional Electricity Regulatory 402
Chapter 10
Contents
XIX
10.2.4 Transmission Wheeling Charges and Losses 402
10.2.5 Development of A Competitive Electricity Market 402
10.2.6 Completed Transmission Projects 403

Chapter 11
Contents
XX
11.5 Assessment of Energy Supply Systems with
an Energy Infrastructure Model for Asia 437
11.5.1 Global Energy Infrastructure Model 437
11.5.1.1 Geographical Coverage and Transportation Network 437
11.5.1.2 System Structure of the Energy Model 438
11.5.1.3 Mathematical Formulation 439
11.5.1.4 Reference Energy Demand Scenario 440
11.5.2 Simulation Results of the Model 440
11.5.2.1 Reference Case Results 440
11.5.2.2 Controlled Case Results 443
11.6 China Power Grid and Its Future Development 444
11.6.1 the Current Situation of China Power Grid 445
11.6.2 Planning of National-Wide Interconnected Power Grid 446
11.6.3 Specic Problems Concerned in National-Wide Power Grid 447
11.6.3.1 Low Frequency Oscillation 447
11.6.3.2 Stability of Receiving Systems 448
11.6.3.3 Security of Multi-in Feed Hvdc Systems 448
11.6.4 Future Development of China Power Grid 449
11.7 Acknowledgement 449
11.8 References 449
Integrated Natural Gas-Electricity Resource
Adequacy Planning in Latin America 451
12.1 Introduction 452
12.2 Electricity and Gas Deregulation 454
12.3 Integrated Gas-Electricity Adequacy Planning in Brazil:
Technical and Economical Aspects 456
12.3.1 the Brazilian Electricity and Natural Gas Sectors 456

and Transmission Infrastructures in China 483
13,1 Introduction 483
13.2 Main Transmission Projects 484
13.3 Power Grid Development 485
13.3.1 Trans-Regional Power Transmission 486
13.3.2 Construction and Operation of Hvdc Power System 486
13.3.3 750kv and 1000kv Ac Transmission and Substation Project 487
13.3.4 Construction and Operation of Urban and Rural Power Grids 487
13.3.4.1 Enhancing International Cooperation 487
13.3.4.2 Improving Environmental Protection 487
Chapter 13
Contents
XXII
13.3.5 Opportunities and Challenges of National Grid 487
13.3.5.1 Strong Growth in Power Demand 487
13.3.5.2 Economic Performance of Hv Transmission 488
13.3.6 Construction of Hv Transmission Grid 488
13.3.6.1 1000kv Hvac Pilot Project 488
13.3.6.2 Outgoing Hvdc Transmission Line of Jinshajiang River 488
13.3.6.3 Prospect of National Hv Grid 489
13.3.7 South China Hvac/Hvdc Hybrid Grid 489
13.3.7.1 the Rapid Growing-Up of South China Power Grid 489
13.3.7.2 the Unique Features 489
13.3.7.3 the Challenges 490
13.3.8 Future of South China Power Grid 491
13.3.9 Wide Area Measurement System (Wams) 492
13.3.9.1 Wams in China 493
13.4 Diversity in Power Generation 494
13.4.1 Higher Requirements on Resources Exploitation 495
13.4.2 Biomass 496

in a Market Environment and Procedures of their Solution 519
14.3 Proposed Performance Criteria for Transmission System
Planning Based on Regulating Framework of Twbp in Korea 523
14.3.1 the Progress of Reconstructing in Korea 524
14.3.2 Regulating Framework for Transmission System Planning 524
14.3.2.1 Network Planning Committee 526
14.3.2.2 Business Plan for Transmission Network Development 526
14.3.3 Background to Performance Criteria
for Transmission System Planning 527
14.3.3.1 Development of Performance Criteria 527
14.3.3.2 Performance Criteria for Abnormal State 527
14.3.3.3 Performance criteria for abnormal state 528
14.3.4 Proposed Performance Criteria for Transmission
System Planning 530
14.3.4.1 Performance Criteria for A Normal State 530
14.3.4.2 Performance criteria for a disturbance 531
14.4 Power Generation and Transmission Planning
in India – Methodology, Problems and Investments 532
14.5 Power System and Power Market Development
in China Problems and Proposed Alliviation Measures 535
14.5.1 Power Market Development 537
14.5.2 Generation Planning, Transmission Expansion
Planning and Investment in China 539
14.5.2.1 Energy Shortage Problems and
Proposed Alleviation Measures 540
14.5.2.2 the Proposed Counter Measures 541
14.6 Generation Planning and Investment Under Deregulated
Environment: Comparison of Usa and China 543
14.6.1 Reforming History of the Power Industry in China 543
Chapter 14

Impacts of Ghg Programs and Markets on the Power Industry 565
15.1 Introduction 565
15.2 International Response to Climate Change: An Overview 565
15.2.1 Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change 566
15.2.2 Major Impacts on Power Systems 569
15.2.3 Major Global Programs 570
Chapter 15
Contents
XXV
15.2.3.1 Kyoto Protocol 570
15.2.3.2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Ipcc) 570
15.2.3.3 Asia Pacic Partnership on Clean Development
and Climate (App) 571
15.2.4 Other Programs and Initiatives 572
15.2.4.1 Other programs and initiatives 572
15.2.4.2 Canada 572
15.2.4.3 Stern review report main conclusions 572
15.2.5 Other Programs and Initiatives 573
15.2.6 Emissions Trading 573
15.2.6.1 Emerging Ghg Markets 573
15.2.7 Mitigate and/Or Adapt 575
15.2.7.1 Mitigation Priorities for Power Industry 577
15.2.7.2 Adaptation Priorities for Power Industry 577
15.2.8 Section Conclusions 577
15.3 Value of Non-Carbon Power and Emissions Avoidance 577
15.3.1 Nuclear Energy Example 578
15.3.2 Valuing Emissions Reduction 579
15.3.2.1 Economic Value to A Nation and the World 579
15.3.2.2 Economic Value to Investors 579
15.3.2.3 Assumed Value of the Right to Emit 580