TOPIC 1:
Examples:
1. She went to Los Angeles.
subject pronoun
2. She gave him her card.
object pronoun
3. That essay is mine her card.
possessive pronoun
4. Little babby has learned to eat by himself.
reflexive pronoun
1
Subject pronouns
I
You
He/She/It
We
You
They
Object pronouns
Me
You
Him/Her/It
Us
You
Them
Possessive pronouns
Mine
Yours
His/Hers/Its
Ours
Yours

a. We put adjectives in front of the noun.
adjective noun
a new car
two green apples
blue eyes
b. Adjectives do not change.
adjective noun
a big house
two big houses
c. We use an in front of an adjective that begins with a vowel.
an old man
an easy exam
B. Use
1. Adverbs describe verbs.
You can do this exercise easily. (Easily describes do.)
2. Adjectives describe nouns.
This is an easy exercise. (Easy describes exercise.)
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TOPIC 3:
A. Form
 Spelling
1. Basic rule: We add –ing to the infinitive.
wash washing
read reading
hurry hurrying
2. Exception: for verbs that end in –e, we remove the -e and add –ing.
drive driving
use using
For verbs with a short vowel and only one consonant, we double the consonant and add –ing.
swim swimming

tomorrow, tomorrow afternoon, etc.
yesterday, yesterday morning, etc.
expressions with last or next
TOPIC 5:
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I. THE FUTURE WITH “WILL”
A. Form
1. Positive and negative
I
He
She
It
We
You
They
‘ll
(will)
won’t
(will not)
see you tomorrow.
get the job.
2. Questions Short answers
Will
Will
you
he
be at the meeting? Yes, I will.
lend you his car? No, he won’t.
B. Use
1. We use the future with will to make predictions or general statements about the future.

(are)
aren’t
‘re not
(are not)
2. Questions Short answers
Are you going to play football? Yes, I am.
Is he going to buy the wine? No, he isn’t
B. Use
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1. We use going to to describe plans, intentions, and things we have decided to do.
I’m going to look for a new job.
I’m going to sell my car.
2. We use going to to describe things we can see or feel will definitely happen in the future.
She’s going to have a baby.
3-0 up with five minutes to play, Manchester City are going to win.
III. THE PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE
A. Form
1. Positive and negative
I
We
You
They
live
in Manchester.
don’t live
(do not live)
He
She
It
plays

/iz/.
changes /ʧeinʤiz/ pushes /pʊʃiz /
IV. THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
A. Form
6
1. Positive and negative
I
‘m
(am)
reading.
watching TV.
working at home.
.
‘m not
(am not)
He
She
It
‘s
(is)
Isn’t
‘s not
(is not)
We
You
They
‘re
(are)
aren’t
‘re not

Where do you work? (I think you have a permanent job.)
Where are you working? (I think you are doing something temporary.)
2. Some verbs are not normally used in the continuous form even when they refer to the present
moment. They refer to states and not to actions. The most important ones are
a. like, love, prefer, hate, want, wish, need
I need a new pen. NOT I’m needing a new pen.
b. think, imagine, believe, know, realize, mean, understand, remember, forget, suppose, hope, see
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I don’t understand. NOT I’m not understanding.
c. be, seem, appear, sound, taste, smell
This tastes delicious. NOT This is tasting delicious.
d. belong, contain, include, matter, owe, own
Who does the car belong to? NOT Who is the car belonging to?
3. Some of these verbs can be used in the continuous form when they describe actions and not states.
Compare these sentences.
This ice cream tastes disgusting. (state)
He’s tasting the soup to see if it needs more salt. (action)
I think it’s important. (state)
‘What are you doing?’ ‘I’m thinking.’ (action)
V. THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
A. Form
We make the present perfect tense with have/has and the past participle.
1. Positive and negative
I
We
You
They
‘ve
(have)
lived abroad.

He’s worked in the same office for twenty years.(He still works there now.)
I’ve lived here for three years. (I still live here now.)
NOW
I’ve lived here for three years.
8
PAST

three years ago
3. We use the present perfect tense when we are referring to a time frame that comes up to the
present.
Have you ever been to Brazil? (In your life until now.)
I’ve been to Brazil three times. (Until now I’ve been there three times.)
Have you seen John today? (We are still in the time frame of ‘today’.)
VI. THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
A. Form
1. Positive and negative
I
We
You
They
‘ve
(have)
been
playing football.
having a rest.
waiting for an hour.
haven’t
(have not)
He
She

4. Sometimes the present perfect simple can describe a more permanent state and the present perfect
continuous can describe a temporary activity.
I’ve lived here for ten years. (permanent)
I’ve been living with my sister for the last few months. (temporary)
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VII. THE PAST SIMPLE TENSE
A. Form
1. The verb to be
a. Positive and negative
I
He
She
It
was
at home last week.
wasn’t
(was not)
We
You
They
were
here yesterday.
weren’t
(were not)
b. Questions Short answers
Was he at home last week? Yes, he was.
Were they here yesterday? No, they weren’t.
2. Regular verbs
a. To make the past simple tense we add –ed to the infinitive. The past simple is the same for all
persons.

3. Irregular verbs
Many commons verbs have an irregular past form. The irregular form is the same for all persons.
a. Positive
verb past simple
see I saw her yesterday.
buy They bought a new car last week.
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b. Negative
He didn’t
(did not)
go to the theatre.
c. Questions Short answers
Did you see the film last night? Yes, I did.
Did she visit her parents? No, she didn’t.
Negatives, questions, and short answers are the same for all persons and for all verbs except the
verb to be.
Note: In negatives and questions we use the infinitive of the verb.
Did you go out? NOT Did you went out?
Did they buy a car? NOT Did they bought a car?
B. Use
1. We use the past simple tense to describe a completed action in the past.
NOW
We went to the cinema yesterday.
PAST
2. We use the past simple tense to describe a completed situation in the past.
NOW
I worked in Edinburgh from 1989 to 1995.
PAST

1989 1995

was
going to work.
wasn’t
(was not)
We
You
They
were
standing at the bus stop.
weren’t
(were not)
2. Questions Short answers
Was he having a bath? Yes, he was.
Were they driving to Scotland? No, they weren’t.
B. Use
The past continuous tense describes a continuous or unfinished activity in the past.
1. We use the past continuous tense to describe an action that started before a particular moment, and
probably continued after it.
At 8.00 I was having breakfast.
This time last week I was lying on a beach in Greece.
NOW
I was lying on a beach in Greece.
PAST
This time last week
2. We use the past continuous tense to describe a temporary situation in the past.
I was living in Bristol last year.
C. Past continuous and past simple
We often use the past continuous tense with the past simple tense. The past continuous describes the
situation – it is background information. The past simple describes the main event. The clauses are
usually joined by while, as, or when.

Eaten breakfast? No, he hadn’t.
B. Use
1. We use the past perfect tense to look back on an event that occurred before another event in the past.
We had dinner. We weren’t hungry.
We weren’t hungry because we’d had dinner.
NOW
dinner not hungry
PAST 1 2
We weren’t hungry because we’d had dinner.
2. The past perfect is often used with when, after, before, as soon as.
I was sure I’d seen him before.
After we’d finished dinner, we went for a walk.
The past perfect is necessary when we need to make it clear that one thing happened before
another. Compare these sentences.
Sheila got up, got dressed, had some breakfast, and went out.
When Sheila got to the party, Amanda had gone home.
In the first sentence we do not use the past perfect, because the order of events is clear. In the
second sentence we need to use the past perfect to make it clear that Amanda went home before
Sheila got to the party.
X. ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
never hardly ever sometimes often normally always
frequently usually
A. We put the adverb of frequency
 after the verb to be.
The train is always on time.
He’s never here at 9.00.
 in front of the main verb.
We often go to the park.
I don’t usually get up late.
B. Sometimes, normally, and usually can also go at the beginning or end of the sentence, but they usually

be here tomorrow,
will she?
It doesn’t
matter,
does it?
You’ve
finished,
haven’t you?
It was
raining,
wasn’t it?
5. When the verb in the sentence hasn’t got an auxiliary, we make the tag from the auxiliary that we
would normally use for making questions in that tense.
She arrived yesterday, didn’t she? You like fish, don’t you?
Note: Negative tag questions are contracted.
You knew about this yesterday,didn’t you? NOT … did not you?
She can speak Russian, can’t she? NOT … can not she?
6. When the subject of the statement is a noun, we replace it with a pronoun in the tag.
This chair‘s French, isn’t it?
Bob and Betty live near here, don’t they?
7. The question tag for a sentence with Let’s is shall we?
Let’s get a pizza, shall we?
8. The question tag for a sentence with I am is aren’t I?
I’m going to Helsinki next week, aren’t I?
9. When we write a question tag it is separated from the statement by a comma (,) and is followed by
a question mark (?).
B. Use
A question tag turns a statement into a question. It is less direct than an ordinary question.
We can use falling intonation or rising intonation on a question tag. We use falling intonation when we
think the statement is true and we expect the other person to agree. We use rising intonation when we

would be
committed.
3. To make the negative of the passive, we use the negative of the verb to be.
The man wasn’t sent to prison.
The weapon hasn’t been found.
4. To make questions we use the normal question form of the verb to be in each tense.
Was the man sent to prison?
Has the weapon been found?
5. We can use the passive with a modal verb. We use a modal verb + be + past participle.
Cars shouldn’t be parked there.
It can’t be done.
She must be told.
B. Use
1. We use the passive when the action is more important than the agent (who or what did the action).
2. We use the passive when we don’t know the agent.
The car has been found.
The suspect was identified.
These houses were built in the 1930s.
If we want to show the agent, we use by.
The car has been found by some children.
The suspect was identified by a witness.
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TOPIC 8:
I. FIRST CONDITIONALS
A. Form
We use the present simple tense in the if clause and the future with will in the main clause. We usually
use a comma (,) when the if clause is first, but not when the main clause is first.
If she
eats
all that ice cream, she

usually use a comma (,) when the if clause is first, but not when the main clause is first.
If I
had
enough money, I
‘d buy
that house.
If you
didn’t eat
so much, you
‘d lose
weight.
He
‘d feel
better if he
didn’t smoke
so much.
They
wouldn’t play
tennis if it
was
raining.
Note: We do not use would in the if clause.
If I had enough money …
NOT If I would have enough money …
B. Use
Second conditionals describe unreal, unlikely, or imaginary situations.
If we had more money, we’d travel business class.
What would you do if you saw a ghost?
III. THIRD CONDITIONALS
A. Form

adjective comparative superlative
one syllable
tall
cold
taller
colder
the tallest
the coldest
One syllable:
short vowel +
one consonant
hot
thin
big
hotter
thinner
bigger
the hottest
the thinnest
the biggest
Two syllables:
consonant + y
heavy
pretty
heavier
prettier
the heaviest
the prettiest
Two or more
syllables

Alex 1.92m
Alex’s brothers 1.85m
1.83m
1.75m
all the mountains in the world
Mount Everest
TOPIC 10:
A. A relative clause gives more information about a noun in a sentence.
I saw the man.
I saw the man who lives next door.
A relative clause starts with a relative pronoun. We use
1. who with people.
He’s the man who lives next door.
2. which with things.
Where’s the disk which was on my desk?
3. that with people and things.
He’s the man that lives next door.
Where’s the disk that was on my desk?
4. whom instead of who when it is the object of a verb.
The woman whom I wanted to see was away on vacation.
5. whose instead of his / her / their
We saw some people whose car had broken down.
6. where to talk about a place
The hotel where we stayed wasn’t very clean.
7. when with time
That was the time when I was unhappy.
8. why with reason
That was the reason why I didn’t want to meet him.
B. In a relative clause we can sometimes leave out the relative pronoun who, which or that.
We can only do this if the relative pronoun is the object of the clause. Look at these sentences.

Zoran: I had never been there before. Zoran said (that) he had never been there before.
Helen: I’d like a coffee. Helen said (that) she’d like a coffee.
Monica: I might phone you later. Monica said (that) she might phone us later.
Note: In everyday speech the rules are not always followed, particularly when the direct speech is still
true at the time of reporting.
Zoe said that they saw a great film.
Tom said that he doesn’t want to go.
II. QUESTIONS
Reported questions are a form of indirect question.
When we report questions, we make the following changes.
 The tenses and pronouns change as for statements.
 The word order changes to a statement word order, and verbs have a statement form.
 There is no question mark at the end of a reported question.
‘Where does John work?’
A man asked me where John worked.
‘How many times have you seen this film?’
She asked me how many times I’d seen the film.
 With Yes/No questions, the reported question starts with whether or if.
‘Have you seen them today?’
He asked me whether/if I had seen them today.
III. COMMANDS AND REQUESTS
We normally use tell for commands and ask for requests, but other verbs can also be used, such as advise,
warn, persuade, beg, order, and command. To report a command or a request we use the following
structure: told/asked + person + (not) to + verb.
‘Don’t worry.’
He told me not to worry.
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‘Please sit down.’
The doctor asked me to sit down.
TOPIC 12:

Anybody who has lost his ticket should report to the desk. (note the singular pronoun)
No problem is harder to solve than this one.
20
subject + [prepositional phrase] + verb
together with along with
accompanied by as well as
any + singular noun no + singular noun some + singular every + singular noun each + singular noun
anybody nobody somebody everybody
anyone no one someone everyone either*
anything nothing something everything neither*
Nobody works harder than John does.
III. NONE/NO
None can take either a singular or plural verb, depending on the noun which follows it.
None of the counterfeit money has been found.
None of the students have finished the exam yet.
No can take either a singular or plural verb, depending on the noun which follows it.
No example is relevant to this case.
No examples are relevant to this case.
IV. EITHER/NEITHER
When either and neither are followed by or and nor, the verb may be singular or plural, depending on whether
the noun following or and nor is singular or plural. If or or nor appears alone, the same rule applies. Study the
following formulas.
Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach today.
plural noun plural verb
Either John or his friends are going to the beach today.
plural noun plural verb
Neither John nor Bill is going to the beach today.
singular noun singular verb
Either John or Bill is going to the beach today.
singular noun singular verb

V. COLLECTIVE NOUNS
Also many words indicating a number of people or animals are singular. The following nouns are usually
singular. In some cases they are plural if the sentence indicates that the individual members are acting
separately.
* Majority can be singular or plural. If it is alone it is usually singular. If it is followed by a plural noun, it is
usually plural.
The majority believes that we are in no danger.
The majority of the students believe him to be innocent.
Examples of collective nouns:
The committee has met, and it has rejected the proposal.
The family was elated by the news.
The crowd was wild with excitement.
Congress has initiated a new plan to combat inflation.
The organization has lost many members this year.
Our team is going to win the game.
The following nouns are used to indicate groups of certain animals. It is not necessary to learn the nouns;
however, they mean the same as group and thus are considered singular.
The flock of birds is circling overhead.
The herd of cattle is breaking away.
A school of fish is being attacked by sharks.
Collective nouns indicating time, money, and measurements used as a whole are singular.
Twenty-five dollars is too much to pay for that shirt.
Fifty minutes isn’t enough time to finish this test.
Twenty dollars is all I can afford to pay for that recorder.
Two miles is too much to run in one day.
VI. A NUMBER OF/THE NUMBER OF
A number of students are going to the class picnic.
The number of days in a week is seven.
A number of the applicants have already been interviewed.
The number of residents who have been questioned on this matter is quite small.

There was water on the floor where he fell.
singular non-count
23
scissors shorts pants jeans tongs
trousers eyeglasses pliers tweezers
+ singular subject…
(or non-count)there is
there was
there has been
+ plural subject…there are
there were
there have
been
Read the text carefully and then choose the correct answer.
PASSAGE 1
(5)
(10)
Alfred Bernhard Nobel, a Swedish inventor and philanthropist, bequeathed most of his vast fortune in trust
as a fund from which annual prizes could be awarded to individuals and organizations who had achieved the
greatest benefit to humanity in a particular year. Originally, there were six classifications of outstanding
contributions designated in Nobel’s will including chemistry, physics, physiology and medicine, literature, and
international peace.
The prizes are administered by the Nobel Foundation in Stockholm. In 1969, a prize for economics
endowed by the Central Bank of Sweden was added. Candidates for the prizes must be nominated in writing

D. Swedish and Norwegian academies and institutes
9. The word “appropriate” in line 12 is closest in meaning to _________________.
A. prestigious B. customary C. suitable D. transitory
10. Why are the awards presented on December 10?
A. It is a tribute to the king of Sweden.
B. Alfred Bernhard Nobel died on that day.
C. That date was established in Alfred Nobel’s will.
D. The Central Bank of Sweden administers the trust.
24
PASSAGE 2
Line (5)
(10)
(15)
Noise, commonly defined as unwanted sound, is another environmental pollutant. Particularly in
congested urban areas, the noise produced as a byproduct of our advancing technology causes physical and
psychological harm, and detracts from the quality of life for those who are exposed to it.
Unlike the eye, the ear has no lid; therefore noise penetrates without protection. Loud noises
instinctively signal danger to any organism with a hearing mechanism, including human beings. In response,
heartbeat and respiration accelerate, blood vessels constrict, the skin pales, and muscles tense. In fact, there
is a general increase in functioning brought about by the flow of adrenaline released in response to fear, and
some of these responses persist even longer than the noise, occasionally as long as thirty minutes after the
sound has ceased.
Because noise is unavoidable in a complex, industrial society, we are constantly responding in the
same ways that we would respond to danger. Recently, researchers have concluded that noise and our
response may be much more than an annoyance. It may be a serious threat to physical and psychological
health and well-being, causing damage not only to the ear and brain but also to the heart and stomach. We
have long known that hearing loss is America’s number one nonfatal health problem, but now we are
learning that some of us with heart disease and ulcers may be victims of noise as well. In addition,
the psychic effect of noise is very important. Nervousness, irritability, tension, and anxiety increase, affecting
the quality of rest during sleep, and the efficiency of activities during walking hours.