iv
Table of contents
Declaration
Abstract
Acknowledgments
List of Tables
Abbreviations

PART I: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Rationale 1
1.2. Aims and Scope of the Study 1
1.3. Methods of the Study 1
1.4. Data collection 1
1.5. Design of the study…………………… 2
PART II: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 3
1.1. Three Metafunctions of Language………………… 3
1.2. Context……………………………………………………… 3
1.2.1. What is Context? 3
1.2.2. Three aspects of context………………… 3-4
1.3. Clauses and their relations 4
1.3.1. Clause Simplex and Clause Complex 4
1.3.2. Types of Relations between Clauses……… 4
1.3.2.1. Taxis 4
1.3.2.2. Logico – semantic type .4-5
1.4. Three kinds of function of clauses 5
1.4.1. Clause as representation: Transitivity 6
1.4.1.1. Process types and Participants .6
1.4.1.1.1. Material process 6

2.3.1. The Transitivity Pattern of the Text……………… 28-29
2.3.2. The Mood Pattern of the Text……………… 29
2.3.3. The Thematic Pattern of the Text 29
2.4. The Cohesion of the Text 30
2.4.1. Grammatical Cohesion 30-31
2.4.1.1. Reference…………………………… 31
2.4.1.2. Conjunctive Devices………… 41
2.4.2. Lexical Cohesion………………… 41
2.5. Contextual Configuration of the Text………………… 43
2.6. Summary 43
PART 3: CONCLUSION 44
1.1. Recapitulation 44
1.2. Contributions 44
1.3 Implications of the study 44
1.4. Suggestions for future research 44

REFERENCES
APPENDICE vi

List of Appendices
Table 1 Clauses and Clause Complexes Analysis
Table 2 Relations between clauses
Table 3 Transitivity Pattern of the Text
Table 4 Mood Pattern of the Text
Table 5 The Thematic Pattern of the Text
Table 6 The grammatical cohesive devices in the text
Table 7 The analysis of the text in terms of transitivity, mood and theme (cont.)


1
PART 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale
According to Halliday (1994), the fundamental difference between systemic
functional grammar and formal models of grammar is that the former is based on a
functional framework. It is functional in three closely related senses: in its interpretation
of text, of system, and of the elements of linguistic structures. Functional grammar sees
language first and foremost as a system of communication and analyzes grammar to
discover how it is organized to allow speakers and writers to make any exchange
meanings. Rather than insisting on a clear distinction between grammatical and
ungrammatical forms, the focus is usually on the appropriateness of a form for a
particular communicative purpose in a particular context. The primary concern is with the
functions of structures and their constituents and with their meanings in context. A
grammarian interested in this kind of description is likely to use data from authentic texts
in specific contexts.
My reason for choosing to analyse a short story by O‟Henry is first and foremost due
to my strong favourite for American short stories, especially, O.Henry‟s ones. Therefore, I
would like to have a deep understanding of my beloved short stories, one of which is the
short story “Witches‟ loaves” by O‟Henry. I myself find that functional grammar with the
systemic functional analysis method is a very useful tool and an effective method to help me
understand the story further in terms of both meaning and structure.
1.2. Aims and Scope of the Study
Within the framework of a minor thesis, the aim of the study is to:
 Examine some basic analytical aspects included by systemic functional
linguistics such as experiential, interpersonal and textual ones.
 Investigate how these aspects are employed in the short story “The Witches‟
Loaves” by O‟Henry.
 Offer some suggestions for teaching and learning.

data collection and the research design.
- Chapter II – Theoretical Background: provides the theoretical background of the
study. Its focus is on introducing important concepts in systemic functional linguistics
relevant to the topic of the thesis.
- Chapter III – The analysis of the short story “Witches‟ Loaves”: focuses on the
meaning and structure of the text.
- Chapter IV – The conclusion: summarizes the results of the study and suggests
some implications for teaching and learning English as well as presents the
suggestions for further research. 3
PART 2
DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER I
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

1.1. Three Metafunctions of Language
Halliday (1970, 1985) sees the functions of language from the sociological point of view.
According to him, language has three functions as follows:
 Language is used to organize, understand and express our perceptions of the world
and our own consciousness. This function is known as the ideational function. The
ideational function can be classified into subfunctions: the experiential and the
logical. The experiential function is largely concerned with content or ideas. The
logical function is concerned with the relationship between ideas.
 Language is used to enable us to participate in communicative acts with other people,
to take on roles and to express and understand feelings, attitude and judgments. This

participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation: the symbolic
organization of the text, the status that it has, and its function in the context, including the
channel (is it spoken or written or some combination of the two?) and also the rhetorical
mode, what is being achieved by the text in terms of such categories as persuasive,
expository, didactic, and the like.
( Halliday in Halliday and hasan 1989 : 12)
1.3. Clauses and their relations
1.3.1. Clause Simplex and Clause Complex
According to Halliday, clauses can be divided into clause simplex and clause complex.
Clause simplex contains one clause, and clauses combine together to form a Clause
Complex. A sentence can be interpreted as a clause complex: a Head clause together with
other clauses that modify it. The notion of “clause complex” as Halliday (1994:216) states,
“enables us to account in full for the functional organization of sentences”. Sentence:
constituent of writing. Clause complex: constituent of grammar.
Clause simplex
Clause complex
|| He kicked the ball ||
||| When you are alone || call me |||
1.3.2. Types of Relations between Clauses
According to Halliday, the clauses constructing a clause complex are in relation in two
terms: Taxis (Interdependency) and Logical-semantic type.
1.3.2.1. Taxis (or Interdependence) relation
Taxis, or interdependency, indicate the logical interdependency between clauses in a
clause complex. Taxis relationships are either paratactic or hypotactic.
Parataxis is “the relation between two like elements of equal status, one initiating
and the other continuing” (Halliday 1994:218). In parataxis, the two elements are
independent, so “we only need to distinguish them by the order in which the speaker has
chosen to say them”. This is done by using the number 1,2,3 … as in:
||| When the morning came, || the other shepherds returned from Bethlehem|||
Projection: the secondary clause is instated by the primary one as what somebody said
(locution) or thought (idea). In other words, locutions are projected verbal events and ideas
are projected mental events.
Projection relationship can be either paratactic or hypotactic. 6
||| He said, || “Stop talking.”|||
1 "2
||| My mother said || that I could go out then|||
 '
1.4. The three kinds of function in clauses
According to Halliday (1994: 34) Actor, Subject, Theme-Rheme each one of the three
forms part of a different functional configuration, making up a separate strands in the overall
meaning of the clause. As a working approximation, we can define these different strands of
meaning as following:
(i) The Actor functions in the structure of the CLAUSE AS A
REPRESENTATION. A clause has meaning as representation, a construal of
some process in ongoing human experience; the Actor is the active participant in
that process. It is the element the speaker portrays as the one that does the deed.
(ii) The Subject functions in the structure of the CLAUSE AS AN EXCHANGE. A
clause has meaning as an exchange, a transaction between speaker and listener;
the Subject is the warranty of the exchange. It is the element the speaker makes
responsible for the validity of what he is saying.
(iii) The Theme functions in the structure of the CLAUSE AS A MESSAGE. A
clause has meaning as a message, a quantum of information; the Theme is the
point of departure for the message. It is the element the speaker selects for
„grounding‟ what he is going on to say.
These three headings- clause as a representation, clause as an exchange, clause as a

Actor
Process: material
Receiver
Goal

1.4.1.1.2. Mental process
Mental process is the process of sensing which consists of processes of cognition
(thinking, knowing, understanding, realizing), of affection (loving, hating, adoring,
pampering), of perception (hearing, sensing, feeling) and of desideration (wanting, desiring,
wishing). In this process we very often talk not about what we are doing, but about what we
think of feel. Metal process usually involve two participants referred to respectively as
Senser (one who senses, feels, thinks, and wants) and Phenomenon (one that is sensed, felt,
thought of, and wanted). The Sensor is always a human being.
E.X:
I
can recognize
the King
Sensor
Process: mental
Phenomenon
1.4.1.1.3. Relational process
Relational process is the process of being, having and being at. It comes under three
subtypes: The intensive, the circumstantial, and the possessive. Relational process consists of
two modes: attributive and identifying. When a relational process is in the attributive mode, it
has one participant referred to as Carrier and the quality referred to as Attribute. When the
relational process identifies the other, it has two participants referred to respectively in two
pairs of terms such as Identified/Identifier and Token/Value.
E.X:
1.4.1.1.5. Verbal process
Verbal process is the process of saying. It can contain one participants referred to as
Sayer, two participants referred to respectively as Sayer and Target or Sayer and Verbiage,
and even three participants referred respectively as Sayer, Target, and Recipient.
E.X:
My sister
told
me
the truth
Sayer
Process: verbal
Recipient
Verbiage

1.4.1.1.6. Existential process
Existential process is the process of existing, indicating that something or some natural
force exists. In this type of process, there is a participant, the Existent and one or two
circumstantial elements.
There
hangs
a picture
on the wall
Grammatical
Subject
Process: existential
Existent
Circumstance

1.4.1.2. Circumstances
Circumstances essentially encode background against which the process takes place.

The speaker‟s organization of the clause as message is represented though the thematic
structure. Relevant to the realization of the system of theme are two elements: Theme and
Rheme.
Theme: The Theme servers as the point of departure of the message, which in
English coincides with the initial element(s) of the clause.
Rheme: The Rheme is the remainder of the message. By analyzing the thematic
structure of the clauses in a text we can find out the text‟s mode of development. The Theme
may be realized by a nominal group, a prepositional phrase, an adverbial group, or even a
clause in a case of predicated theme. Theme may be marked or unmarked. An unmarked
theme is one that is usual or typical, whereas a marked theme is one that is unusual. A topical
theme is one that is conflated with an experiential element of the clause: it can be Actor/Agent,
Goal/Medium or Circumstance. A textual theme represents the meaning that is relevant to the
context: both the preceding and the following text (co-text) and the context of situation. And an 10
interpersonal theme represents the interpersonal element with which the speaker or writer acts
on the listener or reader.
E.X:
We
were waiting outside.
Theme
Rheme
1.5. Cohesion
1.5.1. Grammatical Cohesion
1.5.1.1.Reference: is a relation between the meaning of a word and its
environment, where the environment can be the text (text reference) or the real world
(situation reference). Reference can be divided into anaphoric, cataphoric, exophoric,
personal, demonstrative and comparative reference.
Exophoric: referents which refer outside the text

is occupied by the lexical verb.
E.X: He hurried to the front door as anyone will.
Clausal substitution: is one further type of substitution in which what is presupposed is
not an element within the clause but an entire clause.
E.X: A: It will not rain too long.
B: You think so?
1.5.1.3. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is an omission of certain elements from a sentence or clause and can only be
recovered by referring to an element in the preceding text.
E.X: A: I think you are right.
B: I am sure I am (right).
Ellipsis can be studied in terms of nominal, verbal and clausal ones.
Nominal Ellipsis: When the Thing is omitted, one of the elements in the modifier must
take the role of the head, but the reader can recover the omitted Thing from the
presupposition.
Wife: I would like to live in the big house.
Husband: I prefer living in the comfortable.
Verbal Ellipsis: The Mood element is present but the Residue is omitted.
A: Can she speak English well?
B: Yes, she can.
Clausal Ellipsis: take the presupposing clause as a basic structure where ellipsis occurs
in constituents like the Subject Complement, Predicator, and Adjunct. The missing part can
be retrieved from the corresponding presupposed structure in another sentence.
A: Have another cup of tea?
B: No, thank you (I won’t have another cup of tea)
1.5.2. Logical Cohesion
1.5.2.1. Additive conjunction
- Structurally coordinate or link when being added to the presupposed item, signaled
through:


Synonymy: Lexical cohesion results from the choice of a lexical item that is in some
sense synonymous with a preceding one.
Subtypes: Super-ordinate, Meronymy, Hyponymy
Super-ordinate in texts means that the latter is synonymous with the previous one in the
sense of higher level of generality. Halliday and Hasan (1976:280) regarded super-ordinate as
any item whose meaning includes that of the earlier one. 13
E.X: Four-&-twenty blackbirds, baked in a pie.
When the pie was opened, the birds began to sing.
Meronymy: part-whole relationship
E.X: A tree: trunk, branch, leaf, etc.
Hyponymy: specific- general relationship
E.X: A tree: oak, pine, elm, etc.
Antonymy: Lexical items which are opposite in meaning also function with cohesive effect
in a text.
Eg: He fell asleep. However, the children were awake all the night.
1.5.3.2. Collocation
Collocation refers to lexical cohesion that is achieved through the association of lexical
items that regularly co-occur. Under collocation there are three subtypes: resultative,
modification, and contextual.
Resultative: refers to the relation of one item leading to the outcome of another item.
E.g. kill – die, rain – wet, dark – night.
Modificational refers to the relation holding between an item and one of its inherent
qualities. E.g. run – fast, bright – sun, dark – light
Contextual: house – build, doctor – examine
1.6. Summary
In this chapter, I have reviewed some main concepts which serve as the theoretical
framework for the analysis of the text in the following chapter.

romantic fancy of him as a starving artist prompted her to add butter to his stale bread,
considers her the equivalent of a witch who put an evil spell on him and destroyed his work.
The title of O. Henry's painful short story "Witches' Loves" has several meanings, each of
which dramatizes a part of the story. The first is that at times, "Witches" is a word used as an
invective against someone one is really angry with or toward something one is really angry
about. The artist was certainly really angry about what those “witches' loves” did to his
drafting plans. The second and third meanings are closely linked. You recall that Miss
Martha prepared a mysterious brew of quince and borax in the kitchen, and the narrator says
that "Ever so many people use it for the complexion." Upon consulting Practical Druggist
and Pharmaceutical Review of Reviews, Volumes 25-28, you find that various quince borax
recipes for bars or loves of creams or soaps are used for beauty treatments. In a
metaphorical sense, Miss Martha can be said to be brewing up witches' loves with witchly
mysterious recipes for purposes of romantic witchery. In another metaphor, Miss Martha's
beauty treatment loaves and her doctored or bewitched loves of bread are intended as
magic potions to capture the affections of the lonely artist who subsists on stale bread or so
she thinks. 15
Perhaps O. Henry was thinking of another story when he wrote this - the fairy tale of
Hansel and Gretel. In folklore, witches often used food to lure people into their traps. The
witch in Snow White used an apple, the witch in Hansel and Gretel used candy. In this story,
the "witch" is Miss Martha. Why is she a witch? She thinks she is a kind woman who feels
sorry for a starving artist. Week after week, she eats rich food but never offers any to her
customer. She wishes he would notice her, but she tells herself he is too proud. She does
everything she can to entice him into a conversation with her. She hangs up a painting, she
wears a fancy dress, she puts goop on her face to make her skin look good. Finally, she uses
food - she puts butter into the two stale loaves of bread, thinking she is giving her poor
starving artist customer a treat. Now he will think of her when he eats the stale bread.
Perhaps he will ask her to tea. Alas. Her plan backfires. He has been buying the bread to use

Possessor
Process:
Relational
Attribute:
Possessed
Circ.
Circ.
Actor
Process:
Material
Circ.
MOOD
Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Compl
Adjunct
Adjunct
Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Adjunct

Mood
Residue
Resi-
Mood
-due
THEME
Theme

Pred.
Complement 16 Mood
Residue

Mood
Residue
THEME
Textual
Theme
Topical
Theme
Rheme
Textual
Theme
Topical
Theme
Rheme
(5) (6)

Miss
Martha
was
forty,
her bank-book

Theme
Rheme
(7)

and
she
possessed
two false teeth and a
sympathetic heart.
Transitivity

Carrier: Possessor
Process: Relational
Attribute: Possessed
MOOD

Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement Mood
Residue
THEME
Textual
Theme
Topical Theme
Rheme
(8), (9)

Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
(10) (11)

Two or three
times a week
a man
came in
whom
she
began to take
an interest in
Transitivity
Cir.
Actor
Process:
Material
Phenomenon
Actor
Process: Mental
MOOD

Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Complement
Subject
Fi.

Process:
Material
Goal
Process:
Material
Circ.
MOOD
Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Compl.
Pred.
Compl.
Pred.
Adjunct

Mood
Residue
Theme
Theme
THEME
Theme
Rheme
(15)

He
spoke
English
with a strong German accent
Transitivity

Transitivity
Carrier
Process: Relational

Circ.

Circ.
Attribute
MOOD
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement

Mood
Residue
THEME
Theme
Rheme
(17) (18)

But
he
looked
neat,
and
had
very good
manners
Transitivity

Textual
Theme
Topical
Theme
Rheme
Textual
Theme
Rheme
(19)

He
always
bought
two loaves of stale bread
Transitivity
Actor
Circumstance
Process: Material
Benificiary
MOOD
Subject
Adjunct
Finite
Predicator
Complement

Mood
Residue
THEME
Theme

Mood
Residue
THEME
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
(22)

Never
did
he
call for
anything but stale
bread
Transitivity
Circumstance
Process: -
Sayer
- Verbal
Verbiage
MOOD
Adjunct

Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement

Mood

THEME
Theme
Rheme
(24) (25)

She
was
sure
then
that
he
was
an artist and
very poor 18
Transitivity
Carrier
Process:
Relational
Attribute
Cir.

Carrier
Process:
Relational
Attribute
MOOD
Subject

he
painted
pictures
Transitivity
Circ.
Actor
Process:
Material
Circ.

Actor
Process:
Material
Goal
MOOD
Adjunct
Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Adjunct

Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Complement

Residue
Mood
Residue



Process:
Mental
Phen
Process:
Material
Circ.
MOOD

Fi.
Pred.
Compl.

Fi.
Pred.
Compl.
Predicator
Mood
Residue

Mood
Residue
Residue
THEME
Textual
Theme



Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Adjunct
Subject
Fi.
Pred.

Residue

Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue
THEME
Topical
Theme
Textual
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
(33) (34) (35)

and
wish
that
the gentle-
mannered

Adjct
Fi.
Pred.

Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Compl.
Adjunct
Pred.
Compl.
Adjunct Mood
Res

Mood
Residue
THEME
Textual
Theme
Rheme
Textual
Theme
Theme
Rheme
Textual
Theme
(36) (37) (36)


Mood……

Mood
Residue
mood
Residue
THEME
Theme
Textual
Theme
Theme
Rheme
Rheme
(38)

In order to test
her theory as to
his occupation,
she
brought
from her
room
one
day
a painting
Transitivity
Circumstance
Actor
Process: Material

behind the
bread counter
Transitivity
Goal
Actor
Process:
Material
Cir.

Process:
Material
Benef
iciary
Cir.
MOOD
Comp.
Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Adjunct

Fi.
Pred.
Comp.
Adjunct

Residue
Mood
Residue


A
splendid
marble
palazzio
stood
in the
foreground or
rather
forewater
so
it
said
on the picture
Transitivity
Existent
Process:
Existential
Circumstance

Sayer
Process:
Verbal
Circumstance
MOOD
Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Adjunct

Subject

in the
water
Transitivity
Circ.

Process:
Existential
Existent
Circ.
Process:
Material
Goal
Circ. 20
MOOD
Adjunct
Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Complement
Adjct
Pred.
Compl.
Adjct.

Residue
Mood
Residue

Predicator

Mood
Residue
Residue
Mood
Residue
THEME
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
(48) (49)

"You
haf (have)
here
a fine bicture,
madame,"
,he
said
Transitivity
Quoted
Sayer
Process:
Verbal

Carrier:
Processer
Possessor

Goal
MOOD

Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement Mood
Residue
THEME
Textual
Theme
Topical Theme
Rheme
(51) (52)

"Yes?"
says
Miss Martha,
reveling in
her own
cunning
Transitivity
Quoted
Process: Verbal
Sayer
Process:
Mental

“and
paintings”
she
substituted
Transitivity
Quoted Process:
Verbal
Verbiage
Cir.
Verbiage
Sayer
Process:
Verbal

Senser
Process
Mental
Phen. MOOD

(56) (57)

"You
think
it
is
a good 21
picture?"
Transitivity
Quoted

Senser
Process:
Mental
Carrier
Process: Relational
Attribute
MOOD
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement

Mood

(59), (60)

said
the
customer,
“Der
bairspective of
it
is not
true”
Transitivity
Process: Verbal
Sayer
Quoted
Carrier
Process: Relational
Attribute
MOOD
Fi.
Pred.
Subject
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement

Residue

Fi.
Pred.
Complement
Fi.
Pred.
Mood
Adjunct
Fi.
Pred.
Adjunct

Mood
Residue
Residue
THEME
Theme
Rheme
Textual
Theme
Rheme
(64) (65)

Yes,
he
must be
an artist.
Miss
Martha
took
the picture

THEME
Textual
Theme
Topical
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
(66) (67)

How gentle
and kindly
his
eyes
shone
behind his
spectacles !
What a
broad brow
he
had!
Transitivity
Circ.
Behaver
Process:
Behavioural
Circ.
Attribute:
Possessed
Carrier:

But
genius
often
has to struggle
before
it
is recognized
Transitivity

Actor
Circ.
Process: Material

Phen.
Process: Mental
MOOD
Mood
Adjunct
Subject
Adjunct
Fi.
Pred.
Mood
Adjunct
Subject
Fi.
Pred. Mood

a bakery, and a
sympathetic
heart to.
Transitivity
Attribute
Carrier
Process:
Relational
Circ.

Receiver
Process:
Material
Circumstance
MOOD
Complement
Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Adjunct
Mood
Adjunct
Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Adjunct Mood
Residue

Residue
THEME
Textual theme
Topical Theme
Rheme
(73) (74)

Often
now
when
he
came
he
would
chat
for a
while
across the
showcase
Transitivity
Circumstance

Actor
Process:
Material
Sayer
Process:
Verbal
Circumstance
MOOD

kept on buying
stale bread
Transitivity
Senser
Process:
Mental
Phenomenon
Actor
Process: Material
Goal
MOOD
Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Subject
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement

Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue
THEME
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
(77) (78)