Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
and teaching English in rural Vietnamese primary schools:
Policies, practices and implementation factors

Submitted by

Nguy n, Th Thu Trang
M.A. in TESOL
B.A. in English Literature

A thesis submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

School of Education
Division of Education, Arts and Social Sciences

January, 2015


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Table of Contents
List of Figures

vi

List of Tables

viii

1

Context of the study

3

1.1.1

Primary schooling in Vi t Nam

4

1.1.2

Differences between urban and rural primary schools in Vi t Nam

6

1.1.3

The introduction of English into Vietnamese primary schools

7

1.1.4

Introduction of ICT into Vietnamese primary schools

8


1.6

Significance of the study

16

1.7

Foreseen limitations

17

1.8

Thesis organisation

17

Chapter 2

Policy and implementation relating to ICT and English
language teaching

2.1

19

English language teaching in primary schools

19


ICT in primary schools

26

2.2.1

Use of ICT in primary schools

27

2.2.2

Obstacles to the implementation of ICT

28

2.2.3

Leadership for the use of ICT in primary schools

31

2.2.4

Professional development for ICT implementation

33

2.2.5


Changes in EFL classroom practice with the use of technology

43

2.4

Equity and rural education

44

2.4.1

Equity in education in rural areas

45

2.4.2

Equity in English language learning and teaching in rural areas

46

2.4.3

Equity and ICT in rural education

48

2.4.4


Theoretical perspectives

53

3.2.1

Language-in-education planning goals

53

3.2.2

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

55

3.2.3

Application of theoretical perspectives

61

3.3
3.3.1

Research design

61


67

Document analysis

69

Online forum analysis

70

Summary of data collection methods and objectives

70

ii


3.4

Data analysis

72

3.4.1

Quantitative data

72

3.4.2


3.6

Chapter review

Chapter 4

75

Implementation of English language education policy in
rural primary schools

77

4.1

English language education policy production

4.2

Achievement of policy planning goals for primary English
language teaching

78

79

4.2.1

Access policy: who learns what when?

4.2.3

Curriculum policy: What are the objectives in language teaching/learning? 92

4.2.4

Methods and materials policy: What methodology and what materials
are employed over what duration?

93

4.2.5

Resourcing policy: How is everything paid for?

97

4.2.6

Community policy: Who is consulted/involved?

98

4.2.7

Evaluation policy: What is the connection between assessment, on the
one hand, and methods and materials that define the educational
objectives, on the other?

98


School facilities for ICT: Use by English teachers

106

5.3

School leaders’ views on the introduction of ICT

112

5.3.1

School leaders’ attitudes towards ICT

112

5.3.2

School leaders’ support for ICT implementation

114

5.3.3

School leaders’ attitudes to professional development

115

5.3.4


Access to professional development

122

5.4.5

Province level

122

Expectations for future professional development

123

5.5

Issues in implementing ICT use in schools
Chapter review

Chapter 6

131

Analysis of an online forum for professional development for
ICT in ELT

6.1

126

Section review

138
144

The online forum in action

145

6.2.1

Teacher training sessions

145

6.2.2

Key sub-forums

145

Sub-Forum: Online resources

146

Sub-Forum: English teaching methods

147

Sub-Forum: Sample lessons


Time

155
156

iv


6.3.2

Family responsibilities

156

6.3.3

Skills

156

6.3.4

Facilities

157

6.3.5

Age

Discussion

7.1.1

Limitations in data generation methods

162

7.1.2

Limitations in research participation

163

7.1.3

Limitations in timing and duration

164

7.1.4

Limitations of geographical location

165

7.1.5

Section review



170

7.2.5

Factor 5: Rural teacher knowledge and skills

171

7.2.6

Factor 6: Time and family responsibilities in rural communities

175

7.2.7

Factor 7: Rural teachers’ professional development and learning

177

7.2.8

Section review

179

Recommendations

183


192

7.3.6

Summary of recommendations

194

7.4

Thesis conclusion

195

References

197

Appendices

217

v


List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Resources pyramid ......................................................................................................................25
Figure 2.2 A model of rural social space .....................................................................................................45
Figure 3.1 The TPACK image .....................................................................................................................56


Figure 6.2 Forum Structure.........................................................................................................................135
Figure 6.3 Sub-forum structure ..................................................................................................................137
Figure 6.4 Snapshot of the sub-forums......................................................................................................137
Figure 6.5 Online forum contents relating to TPACK.............................................................................140
Figure 6.6 Snapshot of Moderation Tools.................................................................................................141
Figure 6.7 Snapshot of forum post .............................................................................................................142
Figure 6.8 Snapshot of a forum post ..........................................................................................................143
Figure 6.9 Snapshot of forum post .............................................................................................................144
Figure 6.10 Snapshot of sub-forum 'Online resources' ..............................................................................146
Figure 6.11 Snapshot of sub-forum 'English teaching methods' ...............................................................147
Figure 6.12 Snapshot of sub-forum 'Sample lessons'.................................................................................148
Figure 6.13 Snapshot of a thread on Let's go songs....................................................................................149
Figure 6.14 Snapshot of sub-forum 'ICT tips' .............................................................................................150
Figure 6.15 A snapshot of a post by a forum member ...............................................................................151
Figure 6.16 Forum thread follow-up............................................................................................................152
Figure 6.17 Follow-up of the thread titled ‘Resources for Let's Go series – Third edition’ from
the start date of posting for one month ....................................................................................152
Figure 6.18 Follow-up of the thread titled ‘Magic English - Learn English with Disney
characters’ for 11 months since the start date of posting.......................................................153
Figure 6.19 Post smileys of 'thanks' and 'like'..............................................................................................153
Figure 6.20 Snapshot of forum post .............................................................................................................154
Figure 6.21 Snapshot of visitor message .....................................................................................................154
Figure 6.22 Internet searching skill by age ..................................................................................................158
Figure 7.1 A TPACK representation of primary English language teaching (PELT) practice
in the rural sample .....................................................................................................................172
Figure 7.2 Examining English teachers’ knowledge with TPACK levels ............................................174
Figure 7.3 Relationship among rurality factors shaping ICT integration in Primary English
teaching.......................................................................................................................................181
Figure 7.4 TPACK and Primary English Language Teaching (PELT).................................................191

Table 3.3

An overview of the questionnaire structure ..............................................................................67

Table 3.4

Data collection methods..............................................................................................................71

Table 3.5

Examples of participant coding..................................................................................................73

Table 3.6

Phases of thematic analysis.........................................................................................................74

Table 4.1

A summary of primary English language teaching policies in Vi t Nam.............................79

Table 4.2

Key features relating to the achievement of the MOET’s policy planning goals for
primary ELT in participating schools ........................................................................................99

Table 4.3

Obstacles to the successful implementation of ELT in the rural primary schools............. 100

Table 5.1


Sample of selection criteria of forum resources .................................................................... 141

Table 6.4

Obstacles to the successful implementation of the online forum for English teacher
professional learning in rural primary schools....................................................................... 160

Table 7.1

Categorising rurality factors..................................................................................................... 180

Table 7.2

Suggestions for rural school leaders’ support for integrating ICT and English ................. 186

Table 7.3

Suggestions for rural English teachers’ move into integrating ICT and English............... 188

Table 7.4

Recommendations for ICT integration in Primary English teaching in rural schools ...... 194
viii


List of Appendices
Appendix 1.1

The structure of Vietnamese education system .............................................................218


Questionnaire (for principals/vice-principals in Stage 1).............................................228

Appendix 3.8

Questions for telephone interviews with school principals (Stage 1)..........................230

Appendix 3.9

Letter to the Principal of Primary Schools .....................................................................231

Appendix 3.10

Questions for interviews with teachers (Stage 1) ..........................................................232

Appendix 3.11

Consent form (Interview).................................................................................................233

Appendix 3.12

Outline for the training session ........................................................................................234

Appendix 3.13

Information sheet (for school principals in Stage 2).....................................................235

Appendix 3.14

Information sheet (for English teachers in Stage 2) ................................................237


Province/City-level Department of Education and Training

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

ELT

English Language Teaching

ESOL

English for speakers of other languages. University of Cambridge
ESOL Examinations (Cambridge ESOL) offers Cambridge Young
Learners English Tests designed for school children aged between 7
and 12 in 3 levels: Starters, Movers and Flyers.

ICT

Information and Communication Technology refers to various
technologies concerned with speeding and facilitating the exchange
and distribution of information. Examples of computer-based ICT in
this study include laptop/desktop computers, Internet, software, data
projectors.

MOET

Ministry of Education and Training in Vi t Nam



Summary
The 21st century has seen the explosion of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT), including its ability to facilitate English language learning and
teaching. However, although ICT has been rapidly emerging in Vietnamese schools,
little is known about its integration into English language education especially in rural
areas.
The purpose of this research study was to investigate the use of ICT in facilitating
English language teaching in rural primary schools in Vi t Nam 1. It employed a
mixed methods approach using document analysis and three sequential data collection
methods—questionnaire, interview and online forum. The selected research site was
Ti n Giang, a province in Mekong Delta in the South of Vi t Nam. Research
participants were primary school leaders and English teachers in rural districts of this
province. The research was conducted in three stages: the first to administer the
questionnaire to 100 schools and identify follow-up case study participants, the
second to conduct data collection with school leaders and English teachers in four
case study schools, and the third to develop and trial an online forum to assist English
teachers with integrating ICT. Analysis of the data involved the application of the
seven language-in-education planning goals proposed by Kaplan and Baldauf (2005)
and the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework,
developed by Mishra and Koehler (2006; 2009), as well as reference to diverse
Vietnamese sources of contextual information.
In exploring policies and practices related to English language teaching and the use of
ICT, it became evident that while rural primary schools in Ti n Giang province have
attempted to implement government policies to introduce English language teaching
in their schools, they have not been able to achieve full implementation due to various

1

A note for use of Vietnamese diacritical marks in this thesis. Vietnamese is written using letters of the

of ICT across the curriculum in rural primary schools, all of these factors need to be
considered, and all have implications not only for English language teachers but also
for policy makers, school leaders, and curriculum and textbook writers.

xiii


Declaration

I declare that:
this thesis presents work carried out by myself and does not incorporate without
acknowledgment any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any
university; to the best of my knowledge it does not contain any materials previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text;
and all substantive contributions by others to the work presented, including jointly
authored publications, is clearly acknowledged.

Nguy n, Th Thu Trang

Date
15 January, 2015

xiv


Thesis-related publications and presentations
Nguy n, Th Thu Trang. (2011). ICT implementation and teacher development for
teaching English in rural primary schools. Paper presented at the 2nd Annual
International Conference on TESOL, Hu , Vi t Nam.
Nguy n, Th Thu Trang. (2012). English language policies for Vietnamese primary

English language teaching and learning.
To my colleagues and teachers at SEAMEO RETRAC for having shared my
concerns, for having understood my needs and for always being there with a helping
hand.
To all the primary English teachers and school leaders that have participated in the
research, for their kindness and collaboration, for inspiring me in so many instances
and for their openness towards change and innovation.
I would like to thank my parents and my younger brother for their understanding and
patience and their unconditional love and their support all throughout my life. I am
also grateful to my uncle, Dr Nguy n B o Toàn and his family for their great support
during my study in Australia.
This study would have never been possible without the financial sponsorship of the
Ministry of Education and Training in Vi t Nam, SEAMEO RETRAC and the
University of South Australia.
Finally, I would like to thank my officemates, friends and the TESOL Research
Group who made time to comment on my writing and encouraged me during this
academic journey for a cause I so strongly believe in.
xvi


Chapter 1

Introduction

[C]omputers will not replace teachers,
teachers who use computers will eventually replace teachers who don't.
(Clifford, 1987, p. 13)

The purpose of this research is to investigate the implementation of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) in the teaching of English in rural Vietnamese primary

computer-based ICT into the foreign language curriculum (T. N.

ng, 2011; X. T.

ng,

2012; Government of Vi t Nam, 2008; V. L. Nguy n, 2009), going beyond the already
current use of other digital technologies such as cassette/CD players. ICT in this study
thus will generally refer to digital technologies or computer-based technologies which
reflects the use of the term in many recent policies issued by the MOET (2003, 2008a,
2011a).
Five years ago, in a United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) document aiming to promote ICT literacy in the Asia-Pacific region, Pernia
(2008) estimated that Vi t Nam was high in appreciation but low on availability of
technology. Only three years later, as reported by Vi t Nam’s Ministry of Information
and Communications (MOIC), ‘all schools, colleges and universities in the country have
the Internet connection’ (MOIC, 2011, p. 15). Initially the limited infrastructure in
schools only allowed Internet access for school administration purposes, and not for
classroom purposes. However, infrastructure in schools has gradually improved, starting
with big cities such as Hà N i and H Chí Minh City where most classrooms are now
equipped with computers and data/LCD projectors. As a result, more and more ICT-based
instruction has been seen in metropolitan classrooms and in particular in language
classrooms, which is the focus of this study. In recent research into the use of ICT in five
teacher education institutes in five Northern and Central provinces of Vi t Nam, Peeraer
and Petegem (2010) note that important conditions, such as availability of equipment and
teacher educators’ awareness of ICT potentials for successful implementation, are now
met, with computer access no longer being the main factor holding back the use of ICT in
these teacher education institutions. They conclude their article by emphasising that
‘Vietnamese teachers and teacher educators should be prepared for a changed teacher role
and should know how ICT can be used in a way it improves the learning process towards

educational affairs to implement the national policies. At the district-level, Bureaus of
Education and Training (BOETs) manage all schools in the district and are accountable to
their provincial DOET. The DOETs and the BOETs
… also play liaising roles (communication, management…) between the MOET and
the institutes. The BOET-members are thus the specialized, liaising education
officers which are the closest to the communities and the schools. (Flemish
Association for Development Cooperation and Technical Assistance in Viet Nam,
2008, p. 9)

The structure of the Vietnamese education system comprises 12 years of schooling for
general education consisting of five years in primary (Grades 1–5), four years in lower
secondary (Grades 6–9) and three years in upper secondary education (Grades 10–12).
All Vietnamese children have to complete at least primary education. General education
can be followed by three to six years for a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree, two years for a
Master (MA) degree, and three to four years for a Doctoral degree. (See Appendix 1.1 for
3


an overview of education and training in Vi t Nam.) This following section outlines the
context of the research with a focus on rural primary schools.
1.1.1

Primary schooling in Vi t Nam

According to the 2005 Education Law of Vi t Nam issued by the National Assembly of
the Socialist Republic of Vi t Nam (2005), children start primary education at the age of
six and continue for five years. Education at this level is free and compulsory for all
Vietnamese children. Primary students receive a certificate issued by the school principal
when they successfully complete their primary education. The Education Law of Vi t
Nam states:

the afternoon. The break between the morning and afternoon shift allows students to
return home or to their relative’s place nearby for a meal and rest.

Morning

Table 1.1 Sample of a school timetable for Grade 3
Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Period 1
7:00-7:35

School
meeting

Maths

Vietnamese

Physical
education

Maths


Maths

Extra
activities

Vietnamese

Vietnamese

Extra
activities

Period 1
13:30-14:05

Music

Handicraft

Nature and
Society

Computing

Period 2
14:10-14:45

Fine Arts


provinces were trained in the local Vocational Teacher Training School or Teacher
Training College for two years after they finished their upper secondary education. They
received a Primary Teacher Certificate when completing the training and applied to be a
teacher in a local primary school. In recent times, all primary teachers have been trained
at a local college or university.
There are three types of primary teachers. Some teach all compulsory subjects in primary
education including Music and Arts, some are in charge of only the core subjects
(excluding Music and Arts), while others teach only one subject, e.g. Music, Arts,
Computing or English. Teachers in the first and second group work as a class teacher with

5


their own class, while teachers in the third group teach many classes across all year
levels, each for a small number of periods.
At the time of the study, a primary teacher was required to teach 23 periods per week
(MOET, 2006) out of more than 30 that students engage in. This would suggest that
teachers had adequate free time for preparing their lessons. However, in reality their
schools assigned a higher workload to them. They had to attend a variety of meetings and
be in charge of different duties at their schools, such as being involved in the school trade
union, administrative work, or school events.
1.1.2

Differences between urban and rural primary schools in Vi t Nam

Despite a perceived established primary education system in Vi t Nam, differences
between urban and rural primary school have been reported. In his introduction to
primary education in Vi t Nam, Tr nh (2006) states that there has been an ongoing
difference in the quality of primary education between regions in the country. The main
difference between urban and rural primary schools relates to funding sources and

in terms of financial resources for English. Students’ parents in the cities voluntarily
contribute 30–60% to the primary school budget (Nguyên Minh, 2010). To date I have
not been able to find statistics on how much parents in rural areas contribute, although
statistics on general income levels indicate that rural incomes are lower (Justino &
Litchfield, 2003; T. H. Lê & Booth, 2013).
Behr (2005) also indicates that ‘probably the most significant difference is the amount of
time that children spend at school’ (p. 20). Students in urban schools can stay at school
nearly the whole day whereas far fewer students in rural schools can stay all day because
their parents cannot afford it. Some of the students have to help their parents in the fields
or fishing farms after schools to earn some more money for their family. This has direct
effects because ‘[t]he amount of time at school determines how much material is learned
and how thoroughly it can be learned’ (p. 20). The curriculum, including that for English
language, is also offered differently based on how much time the students spend at
school. Finally, yet importantly in regard to the English language program, students in the
urban areas may have more opportunities to study English and communicate with native
English speakers, and see some relevance for English in the world outside school.
1.1.3

The introduction of English into Vietnamese primary schools

Since the 1990s, English has been taught in language centres and in some private primary
schools in large cities such as Hà N i and H Chí Minh City. In 1996, English was
introduced as an elective subject in primary schools with two 40 minute teaching periods
per week in some provinces because of the strong demand from parents and society (T.
M. H. Nguy n, 2011). This demand put pressure on the education system to legislate for
compulsory English language teaching. Following the Decision No. 1400/QD-TTg
(Government of Vi t Nam, 2008), which approved the scheme on foreign language

7