Question 1: types of sense relation.
1. Substitutional relations are those existing between members of the same
grammatical category.
Eg: she is nice/cute/lovely.
Relations between nice/cute/lovely may be described as subtitutional
+ since they are interchangeable and belong to the same category of
adjectives, they their lexical meanings are not the same.
2. combinatorial relations normally hold between items of different
grammartical categories, such as adjectives which co-occur with noun. Eg:
relations between nice and woman in “a nice woman” is combinatorial because we
can not speak about interchangeability whatsoever in this case.
3. hyponymy is the relation in which there is a group of word, one os which
has a broader meaning which can cover all the meaning of other. Eg: “rose, tulip,
sunflower” are co-hyponyms of “flower”.
4. meronymy which holds between discrete referents is clearly transitive. If
sth X is part of sth Y which is part off sth Z, then X is described as part of Z. eg:
the drive is a part of the CPU and the CPU is a part of the computer. So, we can
say that Drive is a part of computer.
5. semantic fields is a system of networks held together by different
oppositions and values (trier 1939). Eg: color includes blue, green, red.
6. paraphrases and contradiction.
+ Paraphrases is the relationship where 2 proposition have the same truth
conditions.eg: I like English / I am fond of English
+ Contradiction is a relationship where a proposition must be false because
of the meanings of the words involved.
Eg: a, I bought my wife a camera as a gift. B, I bought a camera as a gift for my
wife.
b is a paraphrase of a.
c, he is both married and single.
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- Synonyms are actually words of the same parts of speech which have
similar meaning, but not identical meanings.
- Synonyms may be classifies into 7 groups.
1. absolute synonyms. They are extremely rare in English and probably in
any other languages. Eg: semantics – semasiology.
2. semantic synonyms, they are those which differ in term of their
denotation. Eg: glance – look. 3. stylistic synonyms. They are those which differ
in terms of their connotation, eg : father – dad.
4. semantic stylistic synonyms make up the majority of all synonyms in
English – word differing both in denotation and connotation meaning. Eg: to
reduce – to cut back.
5. phraseological synonyms, ie, words different in their collocations. Eg: do
– make.
6. territorial synonyms, they are those employed in different regions like
Britain, Canada, Australia or the united states. Eg: autumn – fall.
7. euphemisms, which literally means speak well in using euphemisms, a
less unnpleasant or offensive effect is achieved. Eg: wc – bathroom, restroom.
Question 4. Homonyms, types, ex
- Homonyms are different words which have identical form or identical
sounds or both but different meaning. - According to sound form, it may be
classified into:
1.full/perfect homonyms: words identical both in pronunciation and spelling.
Homonyms are the same part of speech .eg: fast (go without food), fast (a kind of
food).
2.partial homonyms: words identical in pronunciation or spelling. They are
homonymous only in some of the forms of their respective paradigms. They may
be of the same or different parts of speech.

predicator)
Types:
1. agentive, including agent and actor – the creater of the process, he kicked
the dog.
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2. instrumental – the instrument involved in the process, she takes a book
to hit her.
3. factive, the entity which is the result of the process, she wrote a letter.
4. locative – indicates the position or direction of the action or state
expressed by the verb, he works at home.
5. owner and possession, she has a beautiful girl.
6. benefactive – the entity that benefits from the action expressed by the
verb, also called beneficiary, my mother bought a car for me.
7. Comitative – the participant that accompanies the subject involved in a
process or action expressed by the verb, she went to the cinema with him. 8. source
– the point of origin of where the process comes from. He searched the information
from the internet.
9. goal – the target, to which an action is directed, his mother hit him.
10. undergoer – just the participant that undergoes or experiences a
process, I have lived here for 10 years.
11. the behaver, the participant that behaves, she laughed loudly.
12. the carrier and attribute, the participant or entity that has the feature
expressed by attribute, he is handsome.
13. the identifier and identified, identified is the participant or entity that is
identified by the identifier, the chair man is my brother.
14. the existent: the participant or entity that exists, water boils at 100c.
Question 7. Definition of process, types of process, eg
- Process is a powerful concept which represents the possible worlds as

6. cause: because of the rain, the flight was delayed.
7. manner: she beats her students with a ruler.
8. attending circumstance: as everyone is here, let’s start.
9. purpose: she is out for lunch now.
Question 9. Distinguish metaphor with simile

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- A simile is an explicit or direct comparison in which something is
compared to sth else by the use of a function word such as like or as. It is an open
comparison.
- Metaphor is hidden comparison, is an implicit or indirect comparison in
which no function word is used. Sth is described by starting another thing with it
can be compared. He is a mouse (metaphor), she is like a mouse (simile)
Question 10. Conditions for a synonym to be absolute
- Lyons 1995 introduces the notion of absolute synonymy. According to
him, 2 or more expression are absolute synonyms if and only if they satisfy the
following 3 conditions:
1, all their meanings are identical,
2, they are synonymous in all context,
3, they are semantically equivalent on all dimensions of meanings and
descriptive and non-descriptive. Eg: semantics – semasilogy
Question 11. Conditions for a homonym to be absolute
- 2 or more expressions are absolute hymonym if and only if they satisfy the
following conditions:
1, they will be unrelated in meaning,
2, all their form will be identical,
3, the identical forms will be grammatical equivalent.
Bank: a financial place – bank of a river.

superordinate member is the one with the extensional mening broad enough to
cover the hyponym.
Hyponymy is a transitive relation. If x is a hyponym of y and y is hyponym
of x then x is the hyponym of z.
Question 15. Differences between sentence and utterance
- The difference between them are:
1. an utterance is an act of speech or writing at a particular time and in a
particular place. It happens just one. An utterance may consist of a word, a phrase,
a sentence or several sentences. But a sentence is not an event, it is a construction
of words according to certain rules which we often called grammatical rules.
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2. the term sentence refers to the system or language side, it can be thought
of as the ideal structure hehind various realizations in utterances. Utterance on the
other hand refers to its realization.
3. sentence meaning as what a sentence regardless os the context or
situation in which it may be used. Utterance meaning on the other hand is what a
speaker means when he makes an utterance is a certain situation.
4. sentence meaning is highly context – independent, whereas utterance
meaning is not.
Question 16: 4 maxims related to the co-operative principle stated by
Grice
- The principle comprises 4 maxims: quantity, quality, relation, manner.
+ The 2 maxims of quantity are:
a, make yourself as informative as is required(for the current purposes of the
exchange)
b, do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
+ The quality maxims say: do not say what you believe to be false and do
not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

contingently true sentences because they might have been or might have been or
might be false in other circumstance
=> Our ability to recognize the falseness of the sentence depend on our
knowledge about the meanings of the sentence and the history of things in the
world
Question 21. Example of meaning sentences and ungrammatical
sentences
- Meaningless sentences: meaningfulness of a sentence is conditioned by
how well form a sentence is sematically.
Eg1: one colorless green ideas sleep furiously => nothing is colorless and
green simultaneously. Ideas can’t sleep and nothing can sleep furiously
Eg2: that is a generous miser => a miser can not be generous
- Ungrammatical sentence: grammatical sentences are not necessarily
meaningful or acceptable. Eg1: I want that he came => I want him to come
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Eg2: I want a eat a cake big => I want to eat a big cake.
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