The Spirit of Ancient Egypt

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The Spirit of Ancient Egypt
Ana Ruiz


Ruiz, Ana.
The spirit of Ancient Egypt / by Ana Ruiz.
p. cm.
ISBN 1-892941-69-4 (alk. paper)
1. Egypt—Civilization—To 332 B.C. I. Title.
DT60 .R89 2001
932—dc21
2001004087

New York
www.algora.com



2nd Dynasty (2890-2700 BC)
Hotepsekhemwy
Raneb
Nynetjer
Peribsen
Khasekhem

Old Kingdom
3rd Dynasty (2700-2613 BC)
Djoser
Sekhemkhet
Khaba
Huni

4th Dynasty (2613-2498 BC)
Sneferu
Khufu
Djedefre
Khafre
Menkaura
Shepseskaf 5th Dynasty (2498-2345 BC)
Userkaf
Sahure
Neferirkare
Shepseskare
Nyuserre

Amenemhet I
Senwosret I
Amenemhet II
Senwosret II
Senwosret III
Amenemhet III
Amenemhet IV
Neferu-Sobek
ƒSecond Intermediate Period
Hyksos Invasion, 13th-17th Dynasties
(1775- 1550 BC)
13th Dynasty
Wegaf
Amenemhet V
Sobekhotep I
Hor
Amenemhet VI
Sobekhotep II
Khendjer
Sobekhotep III
Neferhotep I
Sobekhotep IV
Sobekhotep V
Aye
Neferhotep II

14th-16th Dynasties

Tuthmose IV
Amenhotep III
Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV)
Smenkhare
Tutankhamen
Aye
Horemheb

19th Dynasty (1307-1196 BC)
Ramses I
Seti I
Ramses II
Merneptah
Amenmesses
Seti II
Siptah
Twosret
ƒ20th Dynasty (1196-1087 BC)
Setnakhte
Ramses III - XI

3rd Intermediate Period
(1087- 712 BC)
21st Dynasty (1087 -945 BC)
Smendes
Amenemnisu
Psusennes I

Shabaqo
Shebitku
Taharqa
Tanatamen

26th Dynasty (657-525 BC)
Necho I
Psamtek I
Necho II
Psamtek II
Wahibre
Ahmose II
Psamtek III

27th Dynasty (525-404 BC)
First Persian Period
Cambyses
Darius I
Xerxes I
Artaxerxes I
Darius II
28th Dynasty (404-399 BC)
Amyrateus

29th Dynasty (399- 380 BC)
Neferites I
Hakoris
Neferites II

30th Dynasty (380-343 BC)

Berenice
ƒ
IV
Cleopatra
ƒ
VII with Ptolemy
XIII, XIV, XV (Caesarion) 5

Table of Contents

I
NTRODUCTION
: Egypt’s Evolution 7

P
ART
I
D
AILY
L
IFE

161

21. Dreams and Divination 169

P
ART
III
A
CHIEVEMENTS

22. Kings and Conquerors
177

23. Queens 195
24. Battles and Warriors 203
25. The Pyramids
211

26. The Great Sphinx 221
27. Architecture 225
28. Art 235
29. Literature 243
30. Language and Hieroglyphics 253
31. Medicine 263
32. The Calendar 269
33. Stellar Wisdom 275

Further Readings 281

7

came almost non-existent. People began concentrating along the nar-
row strip of land on both sides of the river, where they survived by fish-
ing, hunting, gathering, farming and breeding livestock. The remaining
region was desert, known as deshret (“red land”) — an area that was
regarded as sinister and perilous, and was often avoided. The black soil
and the narrow colonized strip of land alongside the Nile was called
khemet (“black land”); it provided a sharp contrast to the lifeless “red
land.”
8
The Spirit of Ancient Egypt
The Nile received its modern name from the Greeks, who referred
to the river as “Neilos.” The Nile is the longest river in the world —
almost 4200 miles long — yet it is only 500 yards wide. Out of Ethiopia
rises the Blue Nile and from Uganda comes the White Nile. They con-
verge at Khartoum, Sudan, flowing northward into Egypt, becoming
Iteru Aa (or “the Great River,” as it was known to the ancient Egyp-
tians). The Nile is the only major river to flow north; its many tributar-
ies originate in the mountains south of the equator, and it cuts through
hills, deserts and riparian marshes to empty into the Mediterranean Sea
or Wadj Wer (“the Great Green”). (Both “aa” and “wer” translate into
“great.”) Thus, Upper Egypt and Deshret are located in the southern
region while Lower Egypt, the marsh area and the Delta are situated to
the north. Both regions were known as taui (“the two lands”). The
northernmost area, where the waters fan out into streams in a triangu-
lar-shaped region, is known as the Delta, the name of the fourth letter
of the Greek alphabet whose shape it resembles.
Each summer, rains from Africa cause the waters of the Nile to
rise and temporarily flood the land, depositing a new layer of rich silt
— ideal for growing crops. The fertile valley and warm climate afforded
an optimal environment for the villagers or fellahin to become proficient

followed by Peret, or Proyet, the season of emergence or “coming forth,”
when growth occurred, from mid-November to mid-March. During this
time, the farmers worked the fields, and reaped their grain and flax. The
third season, when the river was at its lowest, marking the end of the
harvest, spanned from mid-March to mid-July; it was called Shemu or
Shomu.
The ancient Egyptians believed the Nile’s springs to have origi-
nated in paradise — or at the first cataract, near Abu (Elephantine).
The water of the Nile was considered to have nutritive value; it not only
served as a symbol of purity and renewal but it visibly gave life to Egypt
every year, bringing forth abundance. The river was also thought to
contain healing properties, and it was frequently used in medicinal pre-
scriptions.
The people of ancient Egypt dedicated many songs to the Nile,
such as the “Hymn to the Nile,” “Adoration of the Nile” and “Hymn to
Hapi.” Hapi was the androgynous god of the Nile, also known as “Son of
the Nile” — and yet, Hapi was not considered to be responsible for the
annual inundation. This honor and grave responsibility went to Khnemu,
the ram-headed god who was worshipped as the “God of Floods.”
Khnemu was credited with “bringing forth the waters” from the first
cataract, where he was believed to dwell. The people of Egypt tradi-
tionally expressed profound gratitude to the Nile and its deity for the
abundance of crops that provided sufficient food for the coming year.
Kings and chaos
Egypt’s Evolution
10
The Spirit of Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt emerged from the pre-Dynastic Age in 3100 BC and
its civilization of dynasties endured for over three millennia. The enor-

per and Lower Egypt. Mennefer was also known as Ineb-Hedj (“White
Wall,” a reference to the white wall enclosing the town’s most promi-
nent landmark, the royal palace). Mennefer, or Ineb-Hedj, was the offi-
11
cial capital during the 3rd Dynasty and remained an important religious
and administrative center throughout ancient Egyptian history. It was
here that the pyramids and royal necropolis of Giza and Saqqara were
situated.
Egypt flourished during the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and
New Kingdom. These empires were separated by periods of strife and
decline known as the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Intermediate Periods, when
Egypt lacked a strong central government and was racked by internal
political turmoil. Foreign trade and contacts with other lands also at-
tracted covetous attention from abroad, resulting in foreign invasion.
The 1st and 2nd Dynasties comprise the Early Dynastic, Archaic or
Thinite Period.
The Old Kingdom began during the 3rd Dynasty, c. 2700 BC. This
period is known as the Era of Stability, or the Pyramid Age. For 500
years, Egypt experienced tranquility and prosperity, particularly during
the 4th Dynasty, where grand achievements were attained in art and
architecture in the form of the construction of the pyramids. During
this time, an efficient administrative system was established as the gov-
ernment became more centralized. However, a breakdown within the
central administration arose as a result of the dispersion of duties and
powers. This decline brought about the collapse of the highly-
structured society of the Old Kingdom.
The 7th Dynasty gave rise to the 1st Intermediate Period (c. 2150
BC). This was a time of internal conflict, revolution, riots, strikes and
civil war that lasted until the 10th Dynasty. Eventually, order and pros-
perity were restored; battles were fought and won, resulting in the re-

out the Delta, expanding control over most of this region. Their origins
are unclear, but most scholars agree that the Hyksos likely came from
Palestine or Syria. These “vile Asiatics,” as the Egyptians called them,
had frizzy hair and curly beards as illustrated in pictures from this era.
The new capital was established at Per-Ramessu (“House of Ramses”),
otherwise known as the town of Avaris.
When King Ahmose finally expelled the Hyksos, thus re-unifying
Egypt, the New Kingdom was ushered in. The New Kingdom began
with the 18th Dynasty (c. 1550 BC); this era is also known as the Great-
est Era and Golden Age. During this time, the population has been esti-
mated at close to 3 million, quite a high figure for the times.
It was during the New Kingdom that the most remarkable figures
ruled the land of Egypt. Pharaohs such as Tuthmose I to IV, Hatshep-
sut, Amenhotep I to III, Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV), Tutankhamen,
and Seti I and II reigned during this prosperous time. The Ramessid Era
also occurred during the New Kingdom, during the reigns of Ramses I
through XI. During the New Kingdom, Egypt reached new heights of
power and greatness. The worship of Amen, “the Creator,” was restored
and the capital was relocated to Uast.
13
However, during the highly controversial reign of Akhenaten, the
capital was moved to Akhetaten (Amarna). Political and religious dif-
ferences between the priesthood, the military and government officials,
along with increasing foreign pressure from the Hyksos and Kushites
(Nubians), brought on the decentralization of the state and served as
catalysts to bring this era to a close. The 3rd Intermediate Period began
with the 21st Dynasty (c. 1087 BC). At this time, the Egyptian empire
crumbled and was overtaken by the Kushites, and later, by the mighty
Assyrians.
The Late Period began with the 25th Dynasty (c. 712 BC), when

Who were they?

The ancient Egyptians were an intelligent, social, active, and
peaceful people. Despite the many hardships that challenged their re-
markable civilization, they maintained their pride, optimism and love
of life. Their priorities were centered on their gods, their families and
their work.
It has often been written that no other ancient people cherished
life as dearly as the Egyptians and that no other, at any time in history,
devoted so much attention to planning for death. Life was so precious
to them that they sought to extend and preserve their lives throughout
all eternity. Preparation for the next life began as soon as one was well-
established in the present. The afterlife was regarded as a continuation
of their temporary existence on earth.
Life in ancient Egypt was not easy; the lifespan of the average citi-
zen was about 35 years. Life expectancy was higher for the upper
classes, who were spared a life of strenuous physical labor and were
healthier, as they enjoyed a better diet. Ramses the Great is believed to
have lived to the ripe age of 96, while Pepy II, a 6th-dynasty pharaoh,
lived to be 100 years old. The work of a pharaoh often went on through-
out his lifetime and was taken over by an heir, in turn.
The gods, or neteru, and Egyptians of every class lived by the laws
of Ma’at. A concept and a deity personifying truth, order and justice,
16
The Spirit of Ancient Egypt
Ma’at was, in mythology, the daughter of the sun god Ra. She was rec-
ognized by the single white ostrich feather she wore upon her head.
Ma’at was the embodiment of the harmony that prevailed in this life
and the next. Life without Ma’at was inconceivable; actions contrary to
the concept were punishable by law. No other civilization experienced

and the workman beat the peasant and stole all his goods. Humiliated
17
and distraught, and with no witnesses to come to his aid, the peasant
took the matter before the High Steward and explained his misfortune.
The peasant related his tale in a most articulate and expressive
manner; he was asked to return the following day, so that his words
could be recorded by the royal scribes for the pharaoh to hear. The
peasant presented himself the following day, and again for nine more
days, hoping to see his goal of justice finally served. As the High Stew-
ard read the scribe’s account of the peasant’s tale, the pharaoh was
most amused, and even touched. Meanwhile, without the peasant’s
knowledge, the pharaoh was having his family looked after, as a reward
for his entertainment and in compensation for the unfortunate incident.
On the tenth day, the peasant lost heart, believing that his words were
falling on deaf ears. The High Steward realized it was time to reveal the
pharaoh’s true motives and intentions to the dispirited peasant. The
workman was stripped of his belongings, which were given to the peas-
ant in reward for his words of wisdom, honesty and fairness. The peas-
ant, as the story goes, eventually became a trusted minister and chief
overseer to the pharaoh.
The tale is emblematic in that it illustrates the feasibility of ad-
vancement for those who were educated and skillful. This was the
equivalent of the modern-day college degree. In Egypt, thousands of
years ago as well as today, talent was recognized. It has been estimated
that in ancient Egypt the literate population was between 1% and 5%
— quite a high number, in an age when writing was a fairly recent in-
vention — and a large number of commoners were at least semi-
literate. Proof remains in the form of graffiti inscribed at rock quarries
where men worked and in the villages where they lived. From the 26th
Dynasty on, literacy increased among the population. Boys were edu-

Showing disrespect to a woman, under the laws of Ma’at, meant going
against the basis of Egyptian beliefs and ultimate existence.
A woman could even be legal heir to the throne, although it was
the man she chose as husband who became ruler and pharaoh. It was
her duty to preserve and to pass on the royal bloodline.
Women enjoyed many legal rights. They participated in business
transactions and owned, managed and sold land and private property.
Women could arrange adoptions, liberate slaves, finalize legal settle-
ments and execute testaments. They could testify in court and bring
suit against other parties, and they could represent themselves in legal
disputes, without the presence of a male relative or representative.
Many “professional” positions were open to women, such as
mourner, weaver, baker, midwife and advisor to the pharaoh. They
could also hold high positions in the temple, as dancers or high priest-
esses — a highly respected position.
It was neither unusual nor forbidden for the self-made woman to
rise in status and position. One remarkable non-royal woman was Ne-