VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

BÙI THỊ PHƢƠNG TRANG
MINOR THESIS RECAPITULATION AN INVESTIGATION ON METAPHOR USED IN ENGLISH
SLOGANS BY SOME BANKS IN THE WORLD.
(Nghiên cứu về ẩn dụ đƣợc sử dụng trong các câu khẩu hiệu
của một số ngân hàng trên thế giới.) M.A. MINOR THESIS Field: English Lingustics
Code: 60 22 15
Course: K18
Hanoi, 2011
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

Table 2: The frequency of each sub-types of Conceptual Metaphor
Table 3: The analysis of target, source and metaphor concepts in slogans of conceptual
metaphor iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………… i
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………. ii
List of tables…………………………………………………………………… iii
Table of contents…………………………………………………………… iv
PART A – INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale……………………………………………………………………… 1
2. Aims and Objectives of the Study……………………………………………… 2
3. Scope of the Study……………………………………………………………… 3
4. Methodology…………………………………………………………………… 3
5. Design of the Study…………………………………………………………… 4
PART B – DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1 – LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 Definition of metaphor…………………………………………………………. 5

2.7 Concluding remark…………………………………………………………… 35
PART C – SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION…………………… 37
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………. 40
APPENDICES I 1
PART A: INTRODUCTION
The first chapter states the research problem and justifies the rationale for the study.
Afterwards, the aims, objectives, scope as well as methodology of the study are
presented. The chapter ends with an overview of later chapters to provide a clear
outline for the whole paper.
1. Rationale
We are now living in an epoch of information explosion in which advertising seems
to be an integral part of the media. It cannot be denied that advertising is an
indispensable element of our social and economic system. Everyday, many products
and services are introduced via the media; therefore, advertising is so familiar to
everyone. It is all around us. We are exposed to so much advertising. Just as Clark,
B. (1998) says: “ the average man lives with the advertising man‟s work more hours
a day than with his family, and is certainly more familiar with advertising slogans
than with the proverbs in his bible.” Advertising is a powerful tool for the flow of
information from the seller to the buyer. It persuades people to believe and purchase.
There are many elements in making a successful advertisement. Slogans can be
considered to be one major factor. Memorable, understandable, meaningful and
competitive slogans can be effective when customers need products or services.
Metaphor is used by people to understand an abstract concept by referring to a
concrete one. It appears so often and is utilized so widely that sometimes we use it
subconsciously and without realizing it. Lakoff and Turner (1989:1) suppose it as
“omnipresent”, “accessible to everyone” and “irreplaceable”. As a matter of fact, a
mastery of metaphor has been acquired to be used in our daily lives and it helps us


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Question 1
Is conceptual metaphor most frequently exploited in banks‟ slogans?
Question 2
Is there an outstanding favor towards the ontological metaphor?
3. Scope of the study
All the chosen slogans in this study are taken from the advertisements of banks in
English-speaking countries or international brands.
In this study, the analysis is based on Lakoff and Johnson‟s theory of metaphor to
discuss each type of metaphor used in the chosen banks‟ slogans.
Due to the limitation of a minor thesis, only 20 banks‟ slogans are selected to be
analyzed.
4. Methodology
First, the banks‟ slogans were selected and classified. After that, the metaphorical use
of words and expressions was identified and categorized into four categories
according to both of their source domain and target domain. Then the theory of
conceptual metaphor has been applied in the analysis and discussion of those
metaphorical expressions.
In fact, the research is a descriptive study as it “involves a collection of techniques
used to specify, delineate, or describe naturally occurring phenomena without
experimental manipulation” (Seliger & Shohamy, 1989:124). Therefore, the
collection of data will be carried out through non-intrusive and non-manipulative
procedures. The descriptive approach helps to investigate into the frequency of
metaphor types among banks‟ slogans.
The combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods is used in this study.
They help us to have a general picture over the selected cases. Qualitative analysis
allows us to carefully research each specific case.

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CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter, the theoretical matters related to the analysis will be discussed.
Firstly, an overview on metaphors in general with its definition and its types are
introduced. Secondly, it is necessary to mention and discuss the relationship between
advertising and slogans. Thirdly, a review of previous studies is also presented.
1.1 Definition of metaphor
The term metaphor that comes from Greek means “transference”. With the
development of cognitive linguistics and the publication of Metaphors We Live By by
Lakoff and Johnson (1980), the understanding of metaphor has been changed
dramatically. Metaphor is a major and indispensable part of our ordinary,
conventional way of conceptualizing the world, and that our everyday behavior
reflects our metaphorical understanding of experience.
Metaphor is defined as the substitution of one idea or object with another, used to
assist expression or understanding. Some theorists have suggested that metaphors are
not merely stylistic, but that they are cognitively important as well. Lakoff and
Johnson also argue that “metaphors are pervasive in everyday life, not just in
language, but also in thought and action.” (1980:3). Metaphors are around us.
Metaphors are not the matter of language, but they also exist in the way we think and
act.
A common definition of a metaphor can be described as a comparison that shows
how two things that are not alike in most ways are similar in another important way.
They explain how a metaphor is simply being understood and experienced one kind
of thing in terms of another. The authors call this concept a “conduit metaphor”. By
this they mean that a speaker can put ideas or objects into words or containers, and

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then send them along a channel, or conduit, to a listener who takes that idea or object
out of the container and makes meaning of it.
Lakoff and Johnson give several examples of daily metaphors we use, such as
“argument is war” and “time is money.” Metaphors are widely used in context to

Moon,R.,2006)
Metonymy is understood as a conceptual process where the target entity is referred to
by the vehicle entity. The vehicle entity can direct attention or provide mental access
to the target entity. Examples are as follows (borrowed from Lakoff and Johnson‟s
2003:37):
He bought a Ford.
The sax has the flu today.
Nixon bombed Hanoi.
(Lakoff & Johnson, 2003:37)
In the above examples, one entity (the vehicle entity) is used to refer to the other (the
target entity). The producer is used to refer to the product, the object used refers to
the user and the controller refers to the controlled. It can be conceived that in all the
three cases above, the vehicle entity and the target entity are contiguous and closely
related.
Metaphor and metonymy are two kinds of transference of meaning. However,
metaphor is based on the association of similarity and metonymy based on the
association of contiguity. Look at an example of metonymy.

E.g. The pen is mightier than the sword.
(Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1839)

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In this example, the word “the pen” refers to literary power and the word “the sword”
refers to military force. This is done on the basis of part-whole relation in which the
name of the part is used to refer to the whole.
Despite the difference, metonymy, like metaphor, is also a conceptual process. It
does not occur randomly or arbitrarily. It cannot be viewed merely as an isolated
mere linguistic phenomenon. Metonymy, like metaphor, is also a reflection of our
daily experience and a reflection of how we think of the world around us. Take the
metonymic linguistic expressions for the metonymy THE FACE FOR THE PERSON

in which an idea (or conceptual domain) is understood in terms of another. In George
Lakoff and Johnson‟s work, 1980, the fundamental basis of Conceptual Metaphor
theory is that metaphor is not particularly about language at all, but rather about
thought. Conceptual metaphors link two conceptual domains, the source domain and
the target domain. The source domain consists of concrete and physical concept
while the target domain tends to be abstract. In the example: “Life is a journey”, we
can see that the way we speak about life in English is similar to the way we speak
about journey. People use the concept of journey to understand the highly abstract
concept of life. The metaphor uses everyday experience with a journey. The two
domains involved in a conceptual metaphor are called the target domain and the
source domain. And the source domain is used to understand the target domain.
Normally the target domain is more abstract (as LIFE) and the source domain is more
concrete (as JOURNEY) (Kövecses 2002:4).
Metaphors are naturally and effortlessly used by English speakers in their daily life.
For example, when people talk We’ll just have to go our separate ways, the
conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY is used, however, most people even do
not realize that they use the metaphorical expression go our separate ways to
comprehend the concept of love (Kovecses, 2002: 30). Therefore, we can call this

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kind of well established and highly conventionalized metaphors conventional
metaphors. The conventional conceptual metaphors like ARGUMENT IS WAR,
LIFE IS A JOURNEY, IDEAS ARE FOOD, THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS, etc. are
widely mentioned to understand abstract domains for communicational purposes.
However, it is often the case that the conventional metaphors are manifested by
unconventional metaphorical expression, for example: “Stop the world. I want to get
off.” Kovecses (2002:31). This sentence derives from the underlying conventional
conceptual metaphors LIFE IS A JOURNEY but it is expressed in an unconventional
way as the life is metaphorically described like a journey on the bus. Briefly
speaking, no matter applied to the conventional metaphoric expressions or

metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson 2003:27) as an example. Inflation is understood as an
entity and it enables us to refer to and qualify it in the following sentences (Lakoff &
Johnson 2003:27):
Inflation is lowering our standard of living.
If there‟s much more inflation, we‟ll never survive. We need to combat
inflation.
Inflation is hacking us in to a corner.
In the above cases, inflation is understood as something that can affect out lives and
be combated. The use of ontological metaphor enables people to talk about and
understand inflation as a physical entity.
For more detailed, this kind of metaphor is further classified into container, entity
and substance metaphor. A containment metaphor in which a concept is represented
as having an inside and outside, and capable of holding something else such as in:
I‟ve had a full life.
An entity metaphor, in which an abstraction is represented as a concrete physical
object or may be a person.

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E.g. My mind just isn‟t operating today.
Another kind of ontological metaphor is substance metaphor. A substance metaphor
is an ontological metaphor in which an abstraction, such as an event, activity,
emotion, or idea, is represented as material.
E.g. There was a lot of good sprinting in the race.
1.2.1.3.2 Structural metaphors
Structural metaphor is one kind of conceptual metaphors classified on the basis of
conceptual functions. Structural metaphors are defined as “cases where one concept
is metaphorically structured in terms of another”. (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)
In structural metaphors, rich structure knowledge is provided by the source domain
for the target concept. By the structure of the source, the speakers are able to
understand the target. The understanding process happens when the elements of the

In what we‟ve done so far, we have provided the core of our argument.
If we keep going the way we’re going, we‟ll fit all the facts in.
We can now follow the path of the core of the argument.
The content of the argument proceeds as follows …
Mixed metaphors are divided into impermissible and permissible mixed metaphors.
Impermissible mixed metaphors are metaphors that conflict because they serve
different purposes. The argument-as-journey and argument-as-container metaphors
serve different purposes. Argument-as-journey can address the “direction” of the
argument and the argument-as-container can address the “amount of content” of the
argument. Permissible mixed metaphors are mixed metaphors that do not conflict
with each other because they serve the same purpose, and exhibit a correlation with
each other. 14
1.2.3 New metaphors
A new metaphor is a metaphor that is not already part of the conceptual system of a
culture as reflected in its language. That‟s why this kind of metaphors is considered
to be “imaginative and creative”. “Such metaphors are capable of giving a new
understanding of experience. Thus, they can give new meaning to our pasts, to our
daily activity, and to what we know and believe.” (Lakoff and Johnson)
E.g.: Love is a collaborative work of art.
(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)
Ortony (1993:2) points out that metaphor can be regarded as “an essential
characteristic of the creativity of language” or “deviant and parasitic upon normal
use”. It is often the case that metaphors used in creative works such as literary works,
advertisements and films are different from metaphors in our everyday life. They are
usually more creative and new.
Creative people such as advertisers usually create novel metaphors to meet various
needs. As a result, there is a widespread view held by most people that these creative

new element to the source domain (Kövecses 2002: 47).
According to Lakoff and Turner (1989), Horace refers to death as the “eternal exile
of the raft”. The conventional metaphor DEATH IS DEPARTURE is reflected in this
expression but is elaborated by detailing the type and means of departure (exile and
raft). It includes details instead of adding new elements from the source as in the case
of extension. That departure is described in terms of exile helps us understand that
death is viewed as something enforced upon us. Choosing a raft as the means of
transport indicates that there is no certain destination. (Lakoff & Turner 1989: 67-69)

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Several conventional everyday metaphors can be combined in a single metaphorical
linguistic expression to create novel metaphors. It is said to be “perhaps the most
powerful mechanism to go beyond our everyday conceptual system” (Kövecses
2002:49). Take the expression below as an example:
You took away the light of my life.
In this short sentence, light is understood as a substance that can be took away and
life is understood as a substance that has light. At least two conventional metaphors
are combined here, namely LIGHT IS A SUBSTANCE and A LIFE TIME IS A
DAY. The combination of conventional metaphors thus enables the creation of new
ones.
Generally, there are three main types of metaphors which are
conceptual/conventional, mixed and new metaphors. Basing on these, 20 selected
banks‟ slogans will be classified.
1.3 Advertising
Advertising is one of the key elements in building a brand personality, which is
equally important to the marketer & consumers. Now advertising is an integral part
of our social and economic system. Everyday we are exposed to so much advertising.
Of all business activities, probably none is better known, more widely discussed, or
more highly criticized by the public than advertising. One reason for this is that
advertising has become the spokesman for business. As a form of mass

power of the product advertised.
1.4 Slogan as a part of an advertisement
1.4.1 Definition of a slogan
A slogan is “a short easily remembered phrase, especially one used to advertise an
idea or a product.” (Cambridge Dictionaries Online)

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A slogan is a sentence that distinguishes advertisements from both each other and the
texts. A slogan may be compared with the headline of an article. A slogan is a form
of verbal logo. In a print advertising, it usually appears just beneath or beside the
brand name or logo. A slogan sums up what one stand for, one‟s specialty, the
benefit, and one‟s marketing position, and one‟s commitment. It is especially useful
to reinforce one‟s identity. Slogans have two basic purposes: to provide continuity to
a series of ads in a campaign and to reduce an advertising message strategy to a brief,
repeatable, and memorable positioning.
In his book, Creative Advertising, Whittier (1958: 11) states that a slogan
“… should be a statement of such merit about a product or service that it is worthy of
continuous repetition in advertising, is worthwhile for the public to remember, and is
phrased in such a way that the public is likely to remember it.”
Advertising slogans are nothing but creative phrases that represents a product for
centuries. The best advertising slogans are made with the idea of recollecting easily
and making people brand loyal. The slogans are created on the basis of the
characteristics of a product; a phrase should resemble a product and make people
aware about the uses of the product. Let‟s have a quick look at the short list of
advertising slogans of the century:
DeBeers: Diamonds are forever
Coca-Cola: The Pause that refreshes
Avis: We try harder
Nike: Just do it
Clairol: Does she … or doesn‟t she?

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Countries
Terms
The UK
End lines, endlines or strap lines
The USA
Tags, tag lines, taglines or theme lines
Germany
Claims
Belgium
Baselines
France
Signatures
the Netherlands
and Italy,
Pay-offs or payoffs
(www.adslogans.co.uk)
1.4.2 Requirements of an effective slogan
The advertising slogan is always short and epigrammatic in nature. It helps to make
the advertisement more impressive and memorable. (XUE Hangrong, 2003:206)
A slogan should
1. be memorable
2. recall the brand name
3. include a key benefit
4. differentiate the brand
5. impart positive feelings for the brand
6. reflect the brand's personality