VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES NGUYỄN THỊ NGỌC

AN APPLICATION OF AN DISCOURSE-BASED APPROACH IN
TEACHING ENGLISH READING SKILL AT THANH HOA
VOCATIONAL SCHOOL OF COMMERCE-TOURISM
Ứng dụng phương pháp tiếp cận dựa trên ngôn bản để dạy kỹ năng đọc Tiếng
Anh tại Trường Trung cấp nghề Thương mại-Du lịch Thanh Hoá

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS
Field: English language teaching methodology
Code: 60.14.10
Ha Noi - 2013
VIET NAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES
NGUYỄN THỊ NGỌC

AN APPLICATION OF AN DISCOURSE-BASED APPROACH IN
TEACHING ENGLISH READING SKILL AT THANH HOA
VOCATIONAL SCHOOL OF COMMERCE-TOURISM

1.1. Definition of reading 4
1.2. Reading comprehension 5
1.3. The concepts of discourse and discourse analysis 5
1.3.1. The concepts of discourse 5
1.3.2. The concepts of discourse analysis 6
1.4. Approaches to teaching reading comprehension 8
1.5. Discourse analysis and teaching of reading comprehension 9
1.6. Cohesion in reading comprehension 11

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
2.1. Research design 15
v

2.1.1. Rationale for the use of an action research 15
2.1.2. Steps for action research 16
2.2. The context of teaching and learning reading comprehension at Thanh Hoa
Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism 18
2.3. Research questions 19
2.4. Participants 19
2.5. Instrumentation 20
26. Action research procedure 20

CHAPTER 3: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. The results of the pre-test 25
3.2. The results of the pre-questionnaire 25
3.2.1. The students‘ attitude toward reading skill 25
3.2.2. Difficulties faced by the students 26
3.2.3. Causes faced by the students 27
3.3. The result of the students‘ post-tests after the course 28
3.4. The result of the questionnaires for the students after the course 31


vii

LIST OF GRAPHS, CHARTS AND TABLES

Graph 1. The students‘ score in the pre-test
Graph 2. The first post-test score of the students
Graph 3. The second post-test score of the students
Chart 1. The students‘ attitude toward reading part
Chart 2. The students‘ s attitude toward reading part after the course
Table 1. Difficulties faced by the students
Table 2. Causes of difficulties faced by students
Table 3. A comparison of parameters between the pre-test and the two post-tests
Table 4. Extent to which the application of a discourse-based approach help the
students to read better

readers to engage their related organs, background knowledge, and reading skills.
Sellers (2000) asserts, ―the reading process is cognitively demanding because
learners need to synchronize attention, perception, memory, and comprehension‖.
However, because of the influence of traditional teaching methods, at Thanh Hoa
Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism, most of the teachers only focus on
vocabulary and grammar in their teaching process; they ignore the application of
discourse analysis while discourse analysis helps students to comprehend reading
materials completely and deeply. Meanwhile, as far as the students are concerned,
most are poor in English, especially reading. Their background knowledge about
words, sentences and structures which they have learned is quite limited; they have
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difficulty in mastering structures and getting main ideas of reading materials.
Therefore, it is necessary to apply discourse analysis in teaching reading
comprehension to improve reading skills for students. Wenquan (2009: 2) suggests,
―Most EFL learners are able to understand the formal structures and logical
meaning of the material they read with an average degree of difficulty and within
general and familiar topics, but cannot understand the rhetorical and functional
meaning of sentences, or sentences with specific topics or involving cultural
differences. The basic reason may be their lack of training in discourse analysis and
ignorance of even simplest discourse analysis techniques‖.
For the reasons above, I have decided to choose the topic ―An application of
a discourse-based approach in teaching English reading skill at Thanh Hoa
Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism‖.
2. Aims and objectives
This study aims at exploring the effectiveness of the application of a
discourse-based approach in teaching English reading skill at Thanh Hoa
Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism.
The specific objectives of the study are:
- To find out changes in the attitude of students at Thanh Hoa Vocational

English reading skill.
Part C. CONCLUSION, reviews the findings and proposes possible solutions to the
problems identified. Limitations of the study and suggestions for further study are
also put forward.

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PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW & THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
In this chapter, the fundamental theoretical concepts will be introduced. First
of all, definitions pertaining to what is meant by reading and reading
comprehension, discourse and discourse analysis, the backbone concepts of this
research paper, are presented in 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 as prerequisites to the
understanding of subsequent notions and models. Second, approaches to reading
comprehension are discussed in 1.4, which are bottom-up, top-down and interactive
processes. Third, the discussions of discourse analysis and the teaching of reading
comprehension are presented in 1.5. And at last the discussions of role cohesion in
reading comprehension.
1.1. Definition of reading
There are many definitions about reading. Goodman (1971:135) believes that
―reading can be understood as an active, purposeful, and creative mental process
where the reader engages in the construction of meaning from a text‖.
Hedge (2000) defines that ―reading is the interaction of two types: the reader
and the text, and the reader and the writer‖.

read accurately and efficiently, so as to get the maximum information of a text‖ and
Grellet (1981: 3) defines, ―reading comprehension or understanding a written text
means extracting the required information from it as effectively as possible‖.
Although these views are different, what comes up a common point is that
reading comprehension is the process in which the readers can obtain the
information as required in the reading text as efficiently as possible.
1.3. The concepts of discourse and discourse analysis
1.3.1. The concepts of discourse
The term ‗discourse‘ is used in different senses depending on what school of
discourse analysis one adheres to. Therefore there are different ways of defining
discourse. Cook (1989) considers discourse as ―stretches of language perceived to
be meaningful, unified, and purposive‖. In other words, as Brown and Yule (1983)
state, "Discourse is language material, either spoken or written, in actual uses by
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speakers (and writers) of the language‖. Nunan (2003: 174) states that ―discourse is
considered with speakers and listeners and normally, with extended stretches of
language rather than single sentences‖. In general, discourse is what the speaker
says and the listener understands in a context. David Nunan (1993: 7) defines,
―context refers to the situation giving use to the discourse, and within which the
discourse is embedded.‖.
It is necessary to make a difference between a discourse and a text since a
confusion of these two terms may result in the failures of discourse analysis. To
some linguists, discourse is different from text but to others, they are the same
subject matter and can be used interchangeably.
Brown and Yule (1983) define text as ―the verbal record of communication
act‖ and discourse as ―the language in use‖. Nunan (1993: 6) considers "The term
text refers to any written record of a communication event. The event itself may
involve oral language or written language", "The term discourse refers to the
interpretation of the communication event in context". However Cook (1992: 1)

discourse analysts is the relation of neighboring sentences and, in particular, factors
attesting to the fact that a given text is more than only the sum of its components. It
is only with written language analysis that certain features of communicative
products started to be satisfactorily described, despite the fact that they were present
also in speech, like for instance the use of 'that' to refer to a previous phrase, or
clause‖.
In this sense, discourse analysis is the analysis of language used in context.
Context plays a central role to the notion of discourse. Context is understood in the
broadest sense to include both the reader and the writer, the situation, the function,
the multimodality, and background knowledge. Thornbury (2005) defines
―discourse analysis as the study of language – either spoken or written – which is
used for communicative effect in a real-world situation and the analysis of the
features and uses of texts or text analysis‖.
1.4. Approaches to teaching reading comprehension
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The two approaches to discourse processing in teaching reading
comprehension are a bottom-up approach and a top-down one. In the bottom-up
approach, we proceed from the most detailed features toward the most general.
This approach has a focus on language elements such as grammar, vocabulary and
cohesion. It enables students to analyze the individual linguistic signals, such as
words, phrases, grammatical cues, discourse markers, and so on.
According to Nunan (1991:78) ―the bottom-up model assumes that the reader
first identifies each letter in a text as it is encountered. These letters are blended
together and mentally ‗sound out‘ to enable the reader to identify the words that
they make up; words are chained together to form sentences and sentences are
linked together into paragraphs; and finally paragraphs are tied together to form
complete texts. Comprehension is thus the final step in a lengthy process of
decoding ever larger units of language‖.
As Rayner and Pollatsek (1989 :25) posit, bottom-up model revolves around

ones. He suggests that, given deficient decoding skills, poor readers may actually be
more dependent on higher-level processes than proficient readers.
1.5. Discourse analysis and the teaching of reading comprehension
In the field of applied linguistic studies, discourse analysis has become a
leading discipline that exerts a significant influence on language teaching.
Knowledge of it is very useful for students, trainees and practicing teachers.
Discourse analysis is not only concerned with the description and analysis of
spoken interaction. Discourse analysts are also interested in the organization of
written interaction such as newspapers articles, letters, stories, notices, instructions
and so on. These interactions are always expected to be coherent, meaningful
communications in which the words and sentences are linked to one another in a
fashion that corresponds to conventional formulae.
Explaining discourse patterning at the macro-level is impossible if we do not
pay attention to the role of grammar and lexis; similarly, good reading cannot be
fostered if we do not consider global and local reading skills simultaneously.
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In recent years, questions of reading pedagogy have centered on whether
bottom-up or top-down strategies are more important. After debates, there has been
a compromise between local and global decoding, and there is general agreement
that efficient readers use top-down and bottom-up processing simultaneously. As
McCarthy (1991: 168) puts it, ―This fits with our general review of discourse as
being manifested in macro-level patterns to which a constellation of local lexico-
grammatical choices contribute. The best reading materials will encourage an
engagement with larger textual forms (for example through problem-solving
exercises at the whole-text level) but not neglect the role of individual words,
phrases and grammatical devices in guiding the reader around the text‖.
At the macro-level, much has been made in recent years of schema theory,
that is, the role of background knowledge in the reader‘s ability to make sense of
the text. McCarthy (1991: 168) explains that the theory is that new knowledge can

discourse analysis in reading comprehension (e.g., Ivanov, 2009; Wenquan, 2009).
For example, Wenquan (2009) used discourse analysis for teaching reading
comprehension by familiarizing the students with common structural-textual ways
of organizing content of the paragraph or discourse level, training them to activate
their background knowledge, and teaching the cohesion and coherence inside
paragraphs and sentences as well as between paragraphs for overall comprehension.
The result of his study showed that students in experimental group gained more
effective reading ability.
In conclusion, discourse analysis plays an important role in teaching of
reading comprehension, the teachers can helps their students comprehend a text by
teaching them to analyze the structure of a text, cohesion and coherence in a text.
1.6. Cohesion in reading comprehension.
Cohesion is a part of text structure, cohesive devices are elementary items to
construct a text. It is impossible to grasp the existence of a text that is more than
two sentences without the presence of cohesive devices. Cohesion is formal links
which exist between sentences, the relationship that cause texts to cohere or stick
together. According to Halliday & Hasan (1976:8) cohesion is ―a semantic relation
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between an element in a text and some other element that is crucial to the
interpretation of it‖. Thus cohesion plays a crucial role in making of sense of the
text. They also identified five types of cohesion: reference, substitution, ellipsis,
conjunction and lexical cohesion (reiteration and collocation).
- Referential cohesion: There are two different ways in which reference items can
function within a text: anaphoric and cataphoric. Anaphoric reference points the
reader or listener ―backwards‖ to a previously mentioned entity, process or state of
affairs, whereas cataphoric reference points them forward. It drives reader or
listener further into the text so as to identify the elements to which the reference
items refer. Personal pronouns, determiners, adverbs and adjectives perform these
types of reference, thus identified as personal, demonstrative, and comparative

the written discourse. According to Malki (2009:33) ―The ability to identify these
devices and their referents is quite significant in promoting the reading
comprehension of the students‖. In the vein, Demel (1990: 268) states that ―the
readers‘ ability to link a pronoun with the concept referred to by the author is a
crucial component of the reading process‖.
Many studies on reading comprehension have shown how cohesion is an
important factor in the development of reading. Chapman and Irwin (1986)
indicates that the perception and understanding of cohesion functions can contribute
to improve and promote comprehension in the reading process. Chapman‘s findings
show the readers have actually shown growth in their abilities to perceive cohesive
in texts and even to use it as a strategy to support comprehension. According to
Irwin‘s ones if the level of cohesion in a text is increased, this will promote
wordiness and facilitate the comprehension of a text.
In conclusion, cohesion is a very necessary element to construct a text, thus
if readers realized cohesive devices in the text, they will understand it.
Summary
The chapter provides a theoretical framework for the study. Focus on the
application of discourse analysis in teaching reading, the research has discussed
concepts of reading, reading comprehension, discourse analysis, the approaches
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(bottom-up, top-down and interactive) to teaching reading comprehension and the
discussions of discourse analysis and the teaching of reading comprehension are
presented. The application of discourse-based approach in teaching reading is the
application of the top-down, bottom-up and interactive process in reading.
However, this study is carried out for the students at the English level of
elementary, its focus is on cohesion in reading texts, so the role of cohesion in
reading comprehension and types of cohesive devices are discussed.
definition (1993) ―action research is a very effective way of helping teachers to
reflect on their teaching and to come up with their own alternatives to improve their
practice‖.
In another way, Grebhard and Oprandy (1999) state that there are two levels
in an action research: ―At one level, action research is about teachers identifying
and posing problems, as well as addressing issues and concerns related to the
problem. It is about working toward understanding and possibly resolving these
problems by setting goals and creating and initiating a plan of action, as well as
reflecting on the degree to which the plan work. At another level, it can be about
addressing educational practices that go beyond each teacher‘s classroom‖.
According to O'Brien, R. (2001), action research is known by many other
names, including participatory research, collaborative inquiry, emancipatory
research, action learning, and contextual action research, but all are variations on a
theme. Put simply, action research is ―learning by doing‖ - a group of people
identify a problem, do something to resolve it, see how successful their efforts were,
and if not satisfied, try again.
Action research is a form of research which is becoming increasingly
significant in language education. If a teacher is trained to carry out an action
research, he can solve his problems on his own or in collaboration with other
teachers. Furthermore, action research is also for teachers‘ professional
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developments. He would become a better teacher because he knows how to find
out and solve his problems in teaching scientifically on his own
Anders (1998), Curtus (1988) and Tsui ( 1993) give three reasons why a
teacher needs action research:
- to solve own problem in scientific process
- to adapt theory to practice
- to share the results of action research with other teachers.
In brief, action research is a kind of scientific research which is undertaken

proposal for action research.
Step 4: Trying out the strategies (action) and keeping a diary of what happened in
the class.
Step 5: Evaluating the try-out by:
- reviewing a lesson (taped at the end of the try-out period) that illustrated the
change that have been made.
- Reflecting on the reasons for those changes (which could include things that
have been improved or that have been gotten worse).
- Carrying out a survey to get information from students.
Nunan (1992) suggested seven steps of action research as follows:
- Step 1: Initiation (Identify the problem)
- Step 2: Preliminary Investigation (Collect data through a variety of means)
- Step 3: Hypothesis (Develop research question)
- Step 4: Intervention (Devise strategies and innovation to be implemented)
- Step 5: Evaluation (Collect data again and analyze it to work out the
findings)
- Step 6: Dissemination (Report the result by running workshop or issuing a
paper)
- Step 7: Follow-up (Find alternative methods to solve the same problem)
In short, the action research design is useful and practical for the researcher. The
researchers have discussed different steps in an action research. This study follows
seven steps of action research suggested by Nunan (1992).
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2.2. The context of teaching and learning reading comprehension at Thanh
Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism.
Thanh Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism is established on the
basis of upgrading Internal Trade Vocational School founded in 1975. The School is
responsible for training professionals in tourism and commerce with vocational
primary and intermediate level in Thanh Hoa province.

Next, they read aloud and ask the students to listen and repeat. Then, they order the
students read the text for the first time, in order to find other words or structures still
unfamiliar to them. After that, the teachers ask the students to read again to do
exercises given at the end of the reading text. Finally, the teachers or they require
the students to translate the text from English into Vietnamese. For students‘
English level as mentioned above and the teachers have not applied reasonable
methods, teaching and learning reading comprehension have still been ineffective.
2.3. Research questions
This paper was aimed at studying the effectiveness of the application of
discourse-based approach in teaching reading skill to improve the effectiveness of
teaching and learning reading at Thanh Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-
Tourism. Thus it was designed to seek answers to the following questions:
Question 1: To what extent does the application of a discourse-based approach
change the attitude of students at Thanh Hoa Vocational school of Commerce-
Tourism toward leaning reading skill?
Question 2: To what extent does the application of a discourse-based approach help
students at Thanh Hoa Vocational school of Commerce-Tourism to read better?
2.4. Participants
To achieve the aims of the thesis and answers to the above research
questions, the participants of the study consists of 35 first-year students of cooking
technique major from the same class and two English teachers as observers and a
teacher of the course in Thanh Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism.
Thirty students were male and five students were female aged between 18
and 21. All of them have learnt English for seven years since secondary school.